The basic structural system of a building is designed to resist forces imposed on it, such as live, dead, and wind loads. In addition, the covering system of roof and walls provide a skin, which protects the building and its contents against the elements: rain, snow, ice, wind, heat, and cold.

Although the resistant and protective features of these two systems are of vital importance, the casual observer obtains his/her first and most lasting impression of the building from its appearance, and appearance is an important function of any building’s complete covering system of roof and walls. (The term “walls” includes both endwalls and sidewalls.)

When evaluating a completed building, we tend to consider the roof primarily in terms of protection, and the walls in terms of appearance. However, a successful covering system must possess other, less obvious, but equally important features.

10 Important Features of a Covering System

• Attractive in APPEARANCE
• Offers PROTECTION from the elements
• Possesses STRUCTURAL STABILITY
• Withstands EXPANSION and CONTRACTION
• Insulates against HEAT and COLD
• Controls MOISTURE condensation
• Offers resistance to SOUND transmission
• Protects against FIRE
• ECONOMICAL to own and maintain
• Allows EASY INSTALLATION of accessories

1. Appearance

Remember that most customers place a high value on the appearance of a covering system. While they usually direct most of their attention to the walls, some take a critical look at the roof as well.

Appearance is particularly important in commercial and community installations, where the covering system becomes the face of the building shown to the public and the image that the occupant projects.

2. Protection from the Elements

Water is potentially the source of more maintenance and repair problems than any other single cause.

Whether in the form of snow, ice or wind-driven rain, water can find and penetrate the smallest openings in a roof or wall. Result: damage to a building’s contents, discomfort for its inhabitants and eventual deterioration of the building itself as a result of rot, corrosion or saturated insulation.

The entire covering system – panels, fasteners, sealants, flashings, and other components – must work together to offer effective protection against the elements.

3. Structural Stability and Integrity

All components of a covering system must have adequate strength and structural properties, since they are the first to offer resistance to loads and forces imposed on the building.

The roof must be able to support its own weight, plus live loads, such as snow and ice, and be designed to resist wind. The wall system, on the other hand, must be strong enough to resist predicted wind loads, wind uplift, and abuse.

4. Expansion and Contraction

A good covering system is designed to allow for expansion and contraction of its components as a reaction to temperature changes. In many parts of the United States, surface temperatures of building components can range from 10 degrees below zero to 140 degrees or more above it. Since cold causes materials to contract, and heat causes them to expand, good building designs must take these factors into consideration. Concrete highways and steel bridges provide for movement caused by expansion and contraction by means of movable joints at regular intervals. The joints act as safety valves and allow controlled movement in the structure.

Well-designed masonry walls contain control joints for the same reason. However, if too few of them are used, or if they are improperly spaced, the wall will invariably crack as a result of temperature changes. Such expansion and contraction cannot be eliminated; it can only be provided for in the building design with control joints and spandrel beams.

5. Insulation against Heat and Cold

Thermal transmission is the technical term generally used to describe heat flow. Roof and wall systems must be able to effectively resist the flow of heat through them by possessing good insulating characteristics.

To put it quite simply, a successful covering system must do two things:

A. Keep natural heat inside the building during winter, and

B. Keep natural heat outside the building during the summer.

The total insulating value of the complete covering system must be known in order to calculate heating and air conditioning requirements.

6. Prevention of Moisture Condensation

Moisture condensation in a building can damage both the structure and its contents by encouraging rot, mildew and rusting. Condensation can even blister outside paints if the roof or wall does not contain a barrier (such as a metal sheet) to prevent moisture penetration.

You are familiar, of course, with the formation of condensation on a glass of cold water or on a cold windowpane. The same condition can occur on the inside of a building under similar conditions if it is not well designed with respect to insulation, heating and ventilation.

The use to which a building is put may tend to encourage or discourage condensation. For example, a laundry establishment represents high moisture occupancy, while a hardware or machinery warehouse usually has much lower moisture content in the air. But the important thing to remember is – water vapor is present in all buildings therefore we only provide the 2% penetration facing on our insulation.

7. Resistance to Sound Transmission

Sound waves that strike a surface are partially reflected, partially absorbed and partially transmitted through its mass, depending upon the type of surface and the properties of the materials.

8. Protection from Fire

Obviously, a desirable quality in a covering system is its ability to prevent either the start or the spread of a fire. Its properties in this respect can have an important bearing on insurance rates for the building. In addition, fire resistance of materials generally must comply with local building codes and zoning laws. The fire protection classification of construction materials is based on many factors, and the best source of information within your territory is that provided by local zoning and code authorities.

9. Economy of Ownership

A good covering system can be economically evaluated in terms of a building’s use and the value placed on it by the owner. Total cost of any system, however, must include both the initial cost and the long range or ultimate costs involved in maintenance, repairs, heating and cooling.

10. Easy Installation of Accessories

The relative adaptability and workability of a covering system for easy installation of such accessories as doors, windows and ventilators is often an important consideration from the customer’s point of view. A good covering system must possess enough flexibility to permit rapid installation of accessories, as well as easy relocation if the operations or use of the building should change.

The Components of a Covering System

You may have wondered why we refer to the covering as a system rather than simply walls and a roof. It is natural to identify a particular wall or roof by naming the basic material used in it. For example: a CMU, tilt-up wall, or metal roof.

However, such a description is not complete, since most walls and roofs must consist of insulation, fasteners, sealants, trim and finish, in addition to the basic material. Generally, the elements of a complete system, exclusive of accessories such as doors and windows, will include some or all of the following components:

• Structural Framing and Support
• Covering
• Insulation
• Joining and Fastening
• Trim and Flashing

Structural Framing and Support

A covering system obtains its support and strength from either or both of two sources:

1. The Structural Frame
2. Its own Stability and Rigidity

The roof is supported by, and attached to, purlins and eave struts. The walls either hang on the structural framework or rest on the foundation, or both, and attach to base angles, rake angles, girts and eave struts.

The role of structural framing is absolutely necessary, but the strength of the covering material itself is equally important. A properly designed covering system must have sufficient strength and rigidity to resist forces and transmit applied loads to the structural system. Light gauge metal covering materials are often fabricated with corrugations or ribs or breaks in a specific form or shape which will increase the strength, and also enhance the appearance of the panel.

The resulting form or shape of the metal sheet’s cross-section is called configuration or panel profile. Shown below are three examples of the Manufacturer’s most common wall panels, which are “PBR” panel, “PBA” panel, and “PBU” panel. We offer “PBR” panel with our building system.

The configuration of a metal panel, when properly designed and fabricated can provide substantial increases in structural strength. Strong configuration of a metal panel is one of the major design factors employed in metal buildings. The Manufacturer achieves many panel profiles or configuration by roll-forming the panel from pre-painted coils.

Roll-forming is a continuous process performed on a machine consisting of a series of graduated metal rolls arranged in pairs, (one on the top and one on the bottom) called stands. Instead of inserting single sheets of stock, metal may be fed through the rolls directly from coil stock, which may consist of hundreds of feet of continuous materials. As it progresses through the series of rolls, each succeeding roll takes a comparatively deeper bite to form the panel.

The roll-forming machine shown above has a number of stands, which enable gradual stages of forming. Each forming stage should take only a slightly greater bite than the preceding stage in order to produce panels with precise tolerances and to avoid surface damage. The machine illustrated roll-forms the standard “PBR” panel. The panel is rolled from coil stock material that is Galvalume Plus® or has already been color coated. The coil stock material is also illustrated below.

Covering

Thickness of material may be expressed in either inches or the decimal equivalent. Most of the time, thickness is referred to as a gauge, which is a standard numbering system to designate the thickness of materials. 29 gauge material is our lightest or thinnest gauge used only for liner. Most of our standard panels are rolled with 26 or 24 gauge material, where all standing seam panels are at a minimum of 24 gauge. The lower the gauge is the thicker the material. 26 gauge “PBR” panel is provided with our Value Building System.

Finishes

The Manufacturer’s panels are available in three different finishes.

• Galvalume Plus®
• Dura-20®
• Royal K-70®

Galvalume Plus®

Recently a new development has introduced a product called Galvalume Plus®. Galvalume Plus® is the trade name for a patented sheet steel product having a highly corrosion resistant coating of 55% aluminum – 44% zinc alloy followed by a state-of-the-art polymeric passivation system. This newly developed passivation system is a two component package consisting of an acrylic-based polymer resin system and an inorganic corrosion inhibitor.

Galvalume Plus® is excellent where corrosion resistance is required and can be used in high profile application like architectural panels and residential roofing. Galvalume Plus® is also perfectly suited for standing seam roofing applications.

The base metal is 26 or 24 gauge Galvalume Plus® steel. The base metal is pretreated and then primed with a primer for superior adhesion and superior resistance to corrosion. The painted panels are available in two finishes: The Manufacturer’s standard Dura-20® or The Manufacturer’s premium finish Royal K-70®.

Dura-20® and Royal K-70®

Appearance is one of the most important features of a covering system, particularly the walls. Nothing enhances the appearance of a wall more than the color finish. In addition, the color finish of a building will often provide added protection against normal weathering. After early metal buildings were established as good utility buildings, people began to consider them for other uses. Galvanized steel was often painted to provide a more pleasing appearance. This is certainly understandable, since color plays such an important role in our lives. Even bare wood or concrete block is not a particularly attractive material unless it has been given a good color finish. In any event, the first painted metal buildings were coated by a standard procedure of applying a good primer and then a good grade of commercial paint. Generally, paint consist of three basic ingredients:

1. Pigment – this gives the paint its color.
2. The vehicle or carrier – this provides paint with flexibility and offers protection of the pigment.
3. Solvent – this assures a compatible joining of the pigment and vehicle and proper curing.

The wide selection and proportions possible with each of these basic ingredients are reasons why you see such a great number of paints available for so many different purposes.

Typical color finishes do not bond very well to metals, especially Galvalume Plus® steel is limited because of the corrosion resistance. Therefore, it is necessary to apply a primer to insure adequate adhesion of the system to the metal substrate and to obtain optimum corrosion resistance.

Coil stock goes through an exacting pre-cleaning and pretreatment process to insure proper adhesion of the Dura-20® or Royal K-70® finish, uniformity of thickness, and flexibility for forming purposes. The following is a typical process:

1. Coil stock starts by receiving a hot alkaline detergent wash, under pressure, to remove oil and other residues.
2. Material is rinsed thoroughly.
3. A pretreatment coating system is applied.
4. The primer is roller coated on both sides.
5. Polymer coat is oven-baked.
6. Final color finish is applied by roller coating to assure a uniform film of finish to the exterior surface and polyester baked to the interior surface.
7. Finishes are oven-baked.

Almost as important as the warranty itself is the exacting means of judging whether or not the finish falls within the limitations of the warranty. A standard 20-year finish warranty is available on all of our panels against peeling, blistering, cracking, fading, and chalking. This warranty covers cost of labor and material to repair, replace, or repaint material proved to be defective under the terms of the warranty.

Dura-20® is the Manufacturer’s standard modified siliconized polyester paint system. Most of the Manufacturer’s panels are available in the standard color offerings. Dura-20® offers optimum exterior protection and resistance to chemical corrosion and ultraviolet radiation. This coating also offers excellent chalk, fade and mar resistance. The Dura-20® is the finish provided with the Value Building System online pricing system.

Royal K-70® is the Manufacturer’s premium fluorocarbon paint system. Royal K-70® coating is formulated with Kynar 500® /Hylar 5000® polyvinyulidene fluoride resin and modified with a proprietary resin for toughness. This long-life finish offers the ultimate in color retention, film flexibility and durability.

Light Panels (Roof or Walls)

The light transmitting panel is a high strength translucent glass fiber reinforced polyester. The light transmitting panels match the standard panel profiles and are 1/16 ” thick, weigh 8 ounces per square foot, and are white with a granitized top surface. The Manufacturer’s light transmitting panels are available in both insulated and uninsulated panels with a UL 90 Wind Uplift rating. Insulated light transmitting panels are available in “PBR” panel and Standing Seam Panel profiles only. We only offer roof panels with or Value Building System.

The benefits of the use of light transmitting panels are obvious:

• As light transmitting panels, the need for artificial light is reduced and electrical cost lowered.
• As decorative panels, the appearance of a building is enhanced.

Insulation

Mentioned earlier was that one of the most important jobs a covering system must perform is to retain heat inside a building during winter, and keep heat outside in the summer. Heat flow cannot be stopped but it can be slowed considerably by using heat-reflective materials or colors, materials that are poor heat conductors, or by trapping still air. Therefore, a good insulation may have a reflective surface exposed to heat, plus many small cells or pockets to trap and hold air as still as possible. This explains why most good insulating materials are made of light, fluffy substances like fiberglass, organic fibers, cotton, cork or foamed plastics.

Joining and Fastening

All the elements or parts that go together to make up a complete wall or roof system must join and fasten together in such a manner to assure pleasing appearance, good protection, and low maintenance.

Laps and Joints

Lapping, tongue and groove, or snap down or mechanical seaming can be used to join the panel edges of two panels that are set side by side.

Endlap

When two panels are to be joined together end to end, the intersection is identified as an endlap or end-joint condition.The following illustration shows how the panels should be installed with back-up plates. Also shown is the sequence of installing the fasteners for endlap panels.

Joining is particularly important when weather protection is being considered. Roof panels must always be joined so that the upper panel laps over the lower panel an adequate distance, which is a 3″ minimum overlap. Wall panels may also be lapped with the upper panel over the lower, although this is not a common practice. Wall panels are cut to run continuously from floor to roofline. The standard maximum length panel is 50′. However, longer panels are available upon request.

Since sidelap and end-lap conditions occur in most covering systems, they deserve a substantial amount of attention both in design and in selection of materials to do a specific job. It is important to note that the fewer the joints in any covering system, the less chance for problems of weather tightness to arise. Thus, the wider the panel, the fewer the sidelap conditions and the longer the panel, the fewer the end-lap conditions. The Manufacturer’s standard practice of roll forming from coil sheet stock has made it possible to reduce substantially the number of endlaps and sidelaps in the total covering system.

Sealants

Regardless of the joining and fastening method used in a covering system, a sealer, or sealant, is invariably used to provide added protection and weather tightness. Three basic types of sealants are:

Tube Sealant: such as mastic from a caulking gun.

Tape Sealant: Tri-Bead – often referred to as mastic tape. It is used at the eave, outside closures, endlaps, and trim connections.

Minor Rib – used to fill voids at minor ribs of the panel at the eave.

Factory Applied Sealant: a foam sealant that consists of a glue and gas mixture that is factory injected into the female leg of the standing seam panels.

Fasteners

The fastening or attaching of panels to structural members and to neighboring panels is of such prime importance that they are emphasized frequently in selling situations. As the design and material of the covering panels have improved throughout the years, so have the methods of fastening.

Standard fasteners come in two (2) types and groups, various lengths and colors, and three (3) different grades. Using the correct fastener for the right job is vital. It is important to take into account the location, application, and circumstances when choosing the fastener that is best for the particular job.

The two (2) types of fasteners are self-tapping and self-drilling. The self-tapping screws require pre-drilling the panel/trim prior to applying the fasteners. This step is not necessary for the self-drilling. The self-drilling fastener combines a unique non-walking point with a drill bit shaped tip to provide quick, positive penetration of both metal panels and steel framing. The threads are engineered to maximize strip out and pull out values while avoiding over driving torque.

Self-drilling fasteners should be used with unpunched panels and framing structural members. The self-drillers are now available in various sizes. Keep in mind that panel fasteners are used for two different purposes. One is for fastening the covering panel to the intermediate structural members. The second purpose is for attaching panels to one another, such as side-to-side or end-to-end.

Panel screws are used for two (2) purposes. Depending on the use of the fastener, all fasteners will fall into one (1) of two (2) groups — member screws and stitch screws.

Fasteners used in panel-to-steel, trim-to-steel, and steel-to-steel applications are member screws.

Fasteners being used in panel-to-panel and trim-to-panel applications are stitch screws. The length of the member screws is primarily dependent on the thickness of insulation used. Stitch screws are a standard length (3/4″ for self-tapping and 7/8″ for self-drilling.) Fasteners being used on colored panels or trim will match the color of the material, plain fasteners will be used on Galvalume® panels.

Electric Seamer

The Manufacturer’s mechanically seamed standing seam roof panel requires the use of an electric seamer. The seamer is only used with the standing seam roofing. The Value Building System does not offer Standing seam roofing.

Unlike the other fastening systems, this system secures the panels side-by-side by seaming the panel edges together. A portable self-powered roll-forming machine called the electric seamer does this seaming.

The electric seamer works at close tolerances and folds the panel edges over twice creating a double standing seam, which is weather tight. This mechanically formed standing seam fastening system is a revolution in the metal roof industry. With the electric seamer, the cost of the standing seam roof has been cut while its features have been saved.

Trim and Flashing

The final element of a good covering system is the method of handling its edges. For example, there must be some method of joining and finishing so that the transitions from wall panels to roof panels offer both weather protection and good appearance.

Flashing is a word used to describe a material for joining two components together to provide proper weather tightness.

Trim on the other hand, generally refers to a material or part used to finish out and cover a joint or juncture to improve appearance.

Gutter refers to a channel member installed at the eave of the roof for the purpose of carrying water from the roof to the drains or downspouts.

The prime objective of the Steel Building System is to provide a quality structure. Our buildings are available in a range of configurations – from the small, standard structures to maximum performance structures with creative architectural refinements to satisfy the spectrum of the owner’s requirements. The variety of building configurations and sizes offers many solutions to fulfill needs of the commercial, community, and industrial markets.

Standard versus Non-Standard

You will hear the word standard used many times in our business. It is misunderstood more than any other word. Certainly any manufacturer who designs and produces parts that must fit together to provide a completed product has a definite direction or “standard”, which is the base of normal application of the product. Consequently, standard items are considered to be those that are commonly manufactured on the production line and those that are purchased by customers.

However, if a situation arises involving something that is “nonstandard”, it is still possible and practical to meet that need in many cases. Our engineers believe nothing is impossible but variation from a standard often means extra work, expense, and time. Sometimes this is negligible, but at other times it might be quite involved.

Primary Framing System

Primary framing furnishes the main support of a building. A bearing frame (post and beam) and a main frame (rigid frame) are examples of primary framing. In this text, we will not only be talking about the main frame as a primary framing system, but also about secondary framing members, and bracing that join with the main frames to make up a complete structural system.

Roof Slope

Roof-Slope is defined as the tangent of the angle that a roof surface makes with the horizontal, usually expressed in units of vertical rise to 12 units of horizontal run.

The roof slope of a building is expressed as 1/2 : 12, 1:12, 4:12, etc. A 1:12 roof-slope rises 1 inch in every 12 inches measured horizontally from the side of the building across its width to the peak of the building. A 1 : 12 is what is provided with the Value Building System.

The Main Frame

The main frame (rigid frame) is the primary structural member of the building system. The main frame consists of columns and rafters. Columns are used in a vertical position on a building to transfer loads from main roof beams, trusses, or rafters to the foundations. Rafters are the main beams supporting the roof system.

Strictly speaking, a main frame is structurally stable because of the rigidity of its connections. The main frame members are connected in such a manner as to make the entire frame act as a single unit. Two common types of connections used to connect major parts of a main frame are diagonal and perpendicular.

Knee/Haunch Area of Main Frame

The knee/haunch is that area of the eave where the column connects to the roof rafter. The knee/haunch ties the members together rigidly and converts them into a single unit to carry all loads, vertical or lateral.

Notice that in the area of the knee/haunch, the main frame (rigid frame) is deepest in section, which makes it the strongest area of the frame.

This is required primarily because of the vertical load considerations, but at the same time it enables the frame to offer lateral strength. What does this mean? It means that the strength designed into the frame for vertical loads is also available to carry lateral loads, which might be caused by high winds, earthquake shock, etc.

Because the inside flange of the knee is in compression, a resulting thrust is produced at the inside corner, which is upward and outward. Stiffeners are used to counteract the resistant thrust. Stiffeners are usually extended to the outside flanges and also serve to stiffen the entire web. The haunch connection also serves as a stiffener. Main frames may be considered as arches in their action, in that they produced a horizontal thrust at their base or a tendency to kick outward. Under certain loading conditions, however, an inward thrust might be produced at the base. Main frames belong to a general class called continuous structures because the action and stress travel throughout the entire structure, since all joints are fixed in a structural sense. Because of this, engineers must analyze an entire main frame as a complete unit in itself, and not as an assembly of separate members.

Visualize a big hand grasping the roof rafter of a single main frame at the peak. The hand is alternately pushing down and pulling up on the frame. Since the member is a continuous structure, it is easy to see that the base of the two columns will tend to kick outward or inward, depending on the type of load being exerted.

These thrusts, however, are easily counteracted by a properly designed concrete foundation. We have used the expression “easily counteracted” purposely because a qualified engineer can design an adequate foundation using the reaction charts supplied by the manufacturer. There are many buildings, both over-designed and under-designed, in use today that have improper foundations simply because the person designing the foundation was either unqualified or did not refer to the reactions furnished by the manufacturer.

The building drawings include reaction charts with various loading conditions for standard main frames. Our pricing program produces preliminary mainframe column reactions as well. Make these charts available to your architects and engineers so that foundations will be priced properly and economically.

Main frames are normally connected to the foundation by using the appropriate anchor bolts in a configuration that is described as a pinned condition. This means that the loads transmitted to the foundation are vertical loads and horizontal loads.

Endwall Frames

Assume a building is 100′ long, consisting of four 25′ bays as shown above.

The main frames indicated by MF in the drawing above support a roof area of two half bays. The endwall frames indicated by EW, however, only support one half-bay of roof load.

From this you can readily see that the endwall frames need not be as strong as the main frames. It is for this reason that in addition to expandable main frame endwalls, we offer lighter non-expandable mainframe endwalls, or even lighter bearing frame endwalls, depending on your customer’s requirements.

The expandable main frame endwall is designed to support two half bays of roof load and can support an additional half bay in the future. The non-expandable main frame is designed to support one half bay of roof load and cannot support an additional half bay in the future. Main frame endwalls do not require any bracing and clear the endwall bays for large framed openings or open wall conditions.

Secondary Framing Members

Secondary framing members are those members that join the primary framing members together to form building bays and provide the means of supporting and attaching the walls and roof. Secondary framing members are:

• Eave Struts
• Purlins
• Girts
• Bracing

Eave Struts

The eave strut is a roughly cee-shaped cold-formed member and is located as illustrated below. Cold-forming is the process of using press brakes or rolling mills to shape steel into desired cross sections at room temperature.

The eave strut provides an attachment and bearing points for the end of the roof sheets and wall sheets. Eave struts are available in nominal depths of 8″, 10″, or 12″ to match the purlin depth. Eave struts are pre-punched at the factory for bolting to the main frames.

Purlins

A purlin is a secondary framing member that serves to support roof panels and transfer the roof loads to the rafters.

The purlin is zee shaped as shown below. Purlins are available in 8″, 10″, or 12″, depth, and are available in different gauges of steel 16, 14, 13, or 12 to meet various loading conditions.

The continuous purlin is a zee shaped cold-formed member 8″, 10″, or 12″, depth with a 50 degree outer lip to facilitate nesting. The purlins are lapped at each interior frame with the lap varying from 8″ to 60″ depending upon the conditions. Continuous purlins take into consideration the design advantage of continuous beams. The economy is based on using them on multiple bays where the overlapped splice of the purlin, continuous over the rafter, assists in supporting the load of the adjacent bay.

Girts

Girts are secondary framing members that run horizontally between main frame columns and between endwall columns. They are zee shaped members like purlins, also available in depths of 8″, 10″, or 12″, and gauges of 16, 14, 13, or 12.

Standard girt spacing is the first girt at 7′ 4″ above finish floor and a maximum of 6′ there after. This standard spacing fits doors, etc., utilizing optimal design. Other spacing is available to satisfy design criteria. A low girt option is available on request at 3′ 6″, which stiffens the wall section, and is standard in high wind conditions. For applications where a drilled pier foundation or isolated pad foundation is to be used, a base girt is available at ground level for fastening the bottom of the panel. Girts and purlins are pre-painted at the factory. The Manufacturer welds all girt attaching clips to the frames for easier and quicker erection.

Bypass girts attach to the outside flange of the columns creating a more efficient design. The girt is lapped at each frame and at the first interior frame from the endwall. Bypass girts are used to take into consideration the design advantages of continuous beams spanning from bay to bay.

Flush girts attach to the web of the columns, with the girt face in the same plane as the column face. Which provides greater interior clearance.

In addition to playing an important roll in the structural stability of the complete building system, girts also serve the important means of providing the framing for the attachment of wall covering.

Bracing

In addition to main frames, endwall frames, eave struts, girts, and purlins, the building system must have adequate bracing to make the system stable in a lengthwise direction. Bracing systems transfer wind loads from endwalls and sidewalls to the foundation. Wind bracing systems must include two types:

1. Longitudinal bracing, for wind on the endwall.
2. Transverse bracing, for wind on the building sidewall.

Requirements for bracing systems described on these pages are based on the specifications of applicable codes.

A variety of methods are available for providing bracing for wind on the building endwall. Bracing systems of this type serve a secondary purpose of squaring the building. In addition to the standard method – diaphragm action, alternatives include X-bracing (cable or rod), fixed base columns, portal frames, and wind bents attached to column When bracing must occur in bays where doors or other accessories are required, fixed based columns or portal frames should be used.

Bracing Methods:

Diaphragm Action

Diaphragm action utilizes the diaphragm resistance of the wall panels to transmit lateral wind or seismic forces to the foundation. Diaphragm action utilizes undisturbed sheeting, floor to roofline, and assumes all wall panels are installed correctly.

X-Bracing

When diaphragm action of the panels is inadequate or not allowed, the first alternative is to provide cable or rod bracing between columns. X-Bracing transfers longitudinal forces to the foundation.

Fixed Base Columns

If the openings in the wall are such that they do not allow for the use of X-Bracing, then fixed base columns may be used. A fixed base column is a column with special base plate condition, which allows wind load to be transferred to the foundation. Therefore, fixed base columns will induce a moment to the foundation, thus requiring a special foundation design.

Portal Frame

If neither X-Bracing nor fixed base columns are acceptable, a portal frame (wind bent) can be used. A portal frame is an I-shaped section of built up material consisting of two columns and a rafter, running parallel to the sidewall, and attached to the web of the sidewall columns. As a standard the portal frame usually does not induce a moment to the foundation.

Brace to Interior Main Frame

A method of bracing used for an open bearing frame endwall is to provide bracing in the roof of the end bay. In this case, the lateral forces on the endwall are transferred to the first interior main frame. The main frame is then designed to resist this additional lateral force.

Flange Braces or Purlin Bracing

Flange braces are structural members that attach purlins, girts, and eave struts to primary structural members (columns or rafters). Purlin bracing is an angle connecting the bottom flange of adjoining purlins to prevent purlin roll.

Flange braces are used to prevent the main frame from twisting or buckling laterally under the load. They are an essential structural part and must be installed properly at all locations. Flange braces can also be very useful as an erection aid to align the purlins and eave struts for easier and lower cost roof installation.

Structural Paint

All primary framing members are factory cleaned to remove loose dirt, grease, mill scale, etc. They are then painted with a red oxide primer. The purpose of this primer is to provide temporary protection of the steel members during transportation and erection. Touch up may be required after erection. Red oxide primer also provides a surface that is chemical and corrosion resistant. Therefore, it is not necessary to put an additional finish coat of paint on the framing members. However, if it is desired, finish paint may be applied over the red oxide in the field. However, consult with the paint supplier for the compatibility and proper preparation of steel before the application of any finish paint. It is also recommended that a test patch of the finish paint should be applied to test for compatibility.

Secondary framing members are pre-painted by a company specializing in coating of metal products with a baked on red primer. Due to the special coating required for roll forming these members, they can be difficult to repaint.

Galvanized Steel

For over 140 years, galvanizing has had a proven history of commercial success as a method of corrosion protection in a myriad of applications. Galvanizing can be found in almost every major application and industry where iron or steel is used. The utilities, chemical process, pulp and paper, automotive, agricultural, and transportation industries, to name just a few, have historically made extensive use of galvanizing for corrosion control.

All of our buildings are also available in galvanized steel as a special option. Two types of galvanized material are used:

• Hot Dip Galvanizing
• Pre-Galvanized

Hot dip galvanizing is the process of applying a zinc coating to fabricated iron or steel material by immersing the material in a bath consisting primarily of molten zinc. The Manufacturer sends the fabricated material, such as, primary and secondary framing members, to the galvanizers.

Pre-Galvanized material is used for secondary members only. The pre-galvanized material used is of 55 grade and adheres to ASTM A653 specifications. The coil of pre-galvanized material is delivered to the Manufacturer and then the pre-galvanized secondary members are fabricated.

Clearspan Buildings

Clearspan buildings allow for the maximum use of interior space, which is particularly important in manufacturing plants, warehouses, offices, and retail stores where uninterrupted space is required. Size flexibility also pays off outside where optimum land use is an equally important consideration.

Virtually every symmetrical, unsymmetrical, and single slope building size and shape is possible as a standard product. Inside the clearspan building you have almost total flexibility in determining the height, width, and roof slope you want: building widths from 20′ – 150′; eave heights from 10′ – 30′; and roof slopes from 1:12 to 4:12. Building widths of 80′ or less are available with the option of straight columns instead of tapered columns.

Lean-tos are available for future expansion or additional space. A lean-to can be designed to match the eave height and roof slopes of the clearspan building if the building was originally designed to take on the loading of an additional lean-to load. Lean-tos are available in widths from 8′ – 60′, eave heights from 8′ – 30′, and roof slopes from 1/2:12 to 4:12.

Modular Buildings

A modular building (with interior columns) is specially designed for large buildings such as manufacturing plants, warehouses, truck terminals, and retail stores. Interior columns are either built up ‘H’ columns or pipe columns. ‘H’ columns are mandatory in a building with a top running crane. Modular buildings combine the proven practicality of a rigid frame with almost unlimited size flexibility.

With a building that is 100′ wide or less, the building can be designed with both clearspan frames and modular frames. This could serve the benefit of having a portion of the building with an unobstructed floor area while maintaining the cost savings of a modular building.

Modular buildings are also possible in any symmetrical, unsymmetrical, and single slope building size and shape as a standard product offering. Inside the modular building there is almost total flexibility in determining the height, width, and roof slope: building widths from 40′ – 500′; eave heights from 10′ – 30′; roof slopes from .25:12 to 4:12; and interior module spacing from 20′ to 100′. Modules are defined as the space between interior columns. THE STANDARD BUILDING is limited to 8 interior modules but more modules are available on request. Building widths of 40′ – 80′ are available with the option of straight columns instead of tapered columns. Lean-tos are also available for future expansion or additional space if the original main structure had been designed to support the additional load of a lean-to.

Lean-to

The lean-to is ideally suited to give that extra space needed alongside the building. The lean-to ties in at or below the eave of the building and can provide a variety of uses, from just a covered area to a completely enclosed addition to your building. A lean-to structure has only one slope and depends upon another structure for partial support. A lean-to can be located at eave or below eave of the supporting structure.

A lean-to is limited to 60′ wide as standard and only has a straight column at the low side and a rafter. The rafter attaches to the supporting structure’s column. Therefore, it is imperative that the bay spacing of a lean-to equals the bay spacing of the supporting structure.

Endwall guidelines for Lean-tos:

1. A lean-to with a bearing frame endwall may be attached to buildings having a bearing frame, an expandable main frame, or a non-expandable main frame endwall.
2. When the lean-to does not extend the full length of the main building and begins or ends at an interior main frame, the bearing frame endwall is the standard condition but also could be a main frame endwall if necessary.
3. If an expandable or non-expandable main frame endwall is used on both the lean-to and the main building the endwall may be completely open.

Endwall Types

Endwalls are available in three basic types:

• Expandable Main Frame
• Non-Expandable Main Frame
• Bearing Frame

Expandable Main Frames

The expandable main frame endwall is a combination of the standard main frame with endwall columns. The endwall columns do not support the rafter but serve only as columns for attachment of endwall girts and transmit the wind load into the foundation and structural frame.

The expandable main frame’s largest advantage is that it provides for easy expansion. Since it is a main frame it will carry the design load of a full bay, and it can remain in-place if the building is expanded.

Non-Expandable Main Frames

The non-expandable main frame endwall is still a main frame with endwall columns, but cannot be used for future expansion. The non-expandable frame can only carry the design load of one half bay.

Both the Expandable and Non-Expandable main frame endwalls provide for more flexibility and ease in locating large framed openings or entrance doors. Locate the openings by simply adjusting the endwall columns spacing. Also, the main frame endwalls do not require any form of bracing, therefore, X-bracing or portal frames will not interfere with large openings.

Bearing Frames

A bearing frame (post and beam endwall) is our standard endwall condition. The endwall columns are generally made of cee channel and at times can be back to back cee channel. The bearing frame is designed to support only one half bay of roof load, and cannot be used to expand the building in the future.

The endwall columns support the channel rafter and also serve as columns for attachment of the endwall girts and transmit wind load into the foundation and structural system. Bearing Frame Endwalls also require a form of bracing, whether it be X-bracing, portal frames, or diaphragm action.

The use of a bearing frame endwall is a matter of economy. You will usually find the prices of the bearing frame endwalls to be less than one half the cost of the expandable main frame endwalls.

Endwall Cost Considerations

It is important to recognize that the different types of endwalls can be interchanged to offer advantages in specific applications.

The expandable clearspan main frame endwall can provide an entirely open endwall up to 150′ wide. This could be the answer to a covered truck dock across the end of the building; or, total flexibility in placement of framed openings.

It is also possible to interchange the interior modular main frames comprised of different modular spacing. For example:

The 120′ wide building could have 3 – 40′ wide modules or 2 – 60′ wide modules. By interchanging some 60′ module frames within the structural system we can retain the lower cost of the interior columns yet provide larger unobstructed areas.

Also, using the 3 – 40′ modular main frame endwall in place of the 2 – 60′ module spacing, you would be able to place an overhead door in the center of the endwall without difficulty.

Many times the ability to interchange frames and endwalls can bring about cost reductions, which will amount to several thousands of dollars. These can be very important savings if you are working against competition or a low budget.

Gable Symmetrical: A ridged (double slope) building where the ridge of the roof is in the center of the building. This is the type of building that can be configured, priced and ordered online.

Gable Unsymmetrical: A ridged (double slope) building where the ridge of the roof is off-center. This type of building requires a custom quote.

Single Slope: A sloping roof in one plane. The slope is from one sidewall to the opposite sidewall. This type of building requires a custom quote.

Lean-To: Ideally suited to give you that extra space you need alongside your building. The lean-to attaches at or below the eave of your building, and can provide shelter for a variety of uses, from just a covered area to a completely enclosed addition to your building. This type of addition requires a custom quote.

Hybrid Structures: Hybrid structures blend the advantages of metal building system construction with the strength of conventional steel members. Hybrid structures meet heavy loading requirements by providing the most effective design possible – the best of both worlds. The advantages include:

• Design flexibility
• Single source responsibility
• Fast, easy construction
• Cost effectiveness

The designs and engineering available allows virtually any requirement for hybrid structures, no matter how large or complex. When it comes to large, tough construction jobs, the hybrid building approach provides a cost-conscious alternative.

Crane Buildings: With the end use of metal building systems dominated by the manufacturing and warehousing sector, building cranes become an important element of the structure. We recognize the need to properly integrate the design of the metal building system with the building crane specifications. The building crane is a complex structural system consisting of the crane with trolley and hoist, cranes rails, crane runway beams, structural supports, stops and bumpers.

The cranes typically found in metal building systems include:

• Bridge Crane
• Top Running
• Underhung
• Monorail
• Jib
• Stacker
• Gantry

We can provide each metal building and crane support system to meet the specific requirements of your project.

Aviation Facilities: Aircraft hangars are individually engineered to meet specific requirements and are flexible enough to satisfy even the most complex aviation need. The hangars may be designed using gable symmetrical, gable unsymmetrical or single slope structural systems.

These cost effective, functional structures have many advantages:

• Design flexibility
• Fast, easy construction
• Reduced maintenance costs

Clearspan design provides column-free interiors for wide-open floor space and eave heights that can accommodate today’s larger aircraft. The structures allow for a variety of door options including bi-fold, bi-parting, and stack leaf designs.

By combining the metal building system with conventional exterior materials such as brick, stone, precast concrete, or glass, the structure can be aesthetically appealing while providing the perfect solution to aviation needs.

Construction Material Requirements

Consider some of the key factors that influence the selection of construction materials by the manufacturer, the designer and the user.

STRENGTH is a very important factor.

AVAILABILITY of material influences its selection, cost of material and final in-place cost.

To facilitate design and fabrication, a material must possess a good degree of WORKABILITY.

WEIGHT and BULK become important from a handling and shipping standpoint.

DURABILITY of the finished product is measured in terms of its resistance to wear and destruction from all causes.

Materials must be capable of presenting a pleasing APPEARANCE.

Steel is used extensively in many segments of construction, especially in standard structural members. When you hear a construction worker refer to “red iron,” he or she is talking about steel.

The primary advantage of steel is its strength. The material, as it comes from the mills, has very exacting specifications, enabling engineers to design structures with a high degree of accuracy. In addition, steel is a plentiful and well-accepted material. It has a high degree of workability because it can be cut, welded, shaped, and formed to meet a great variety of needs. Steel can also take a great deal of abuse and wear.

The greatest disadvantage of steel is that it will rust – deteriorate by a process of oxidation – when exposed to the elements. This is prevented, however, by the application of protective finishes and paints.

Although steel will not burn, it is not classified as fireproof because it can become distorted, lose its structural strength, or even melt – depending on the intensity of the heat. Nevertheless, compared to many materials, steel offers a great deal of fire resistance due to the large amount of heat needed to cause it damage.

Fundamental Factors Affecting Building Design

Buildings provide shelter for persons and property. A building must have many desirable characteristics such as an attractive appearance, long life, flexibility of use, and economy. However, its basic requirement must be one of protection.

You might analyze this a step further and really consider two kinds of protection.

One type is protection against forces or loads that may be exerted upon the building. Unless the structure can offer adequate resistance against various loading conditions, the safety of persons and the value of property are endangered. This is where sound design consideration must be given as to the strength of the building and particularly to the structural system.

Another kind of protection is protection against rain, wind, heat, and cold. Any of these can contribute to the discomfort of persons and cause a decrease in the value of contents. The degree of protection against them is determined by the weather tightness and thermal efficiency of a building. These things, of course, greatly influence the design of roofs and walls – also known as the covering system.

Design Loading

If you were to ask an engineer to design a structure of a certain size, he/she would first have to know what loads would be imposed upon the building – their type and magnitude. Only with this basic information will he/she be able to design a building that will meet the prospective customer’s exact needs for loading conditions, it is important that you have a basic understanding of design loading.

A load is a force exerted upon a structure or one of its members. There are many different kinds of loads that must be taken into consideration in various situations, but only those that are of prime importance will be covered at this time.

Dead Load: The weight of the metal building system, such as roof, framing, and covering members.

Live Load : Any temporary load imposed on a building that is not wind load, snow load, seismic load or dead load. A few examples of a live load are workers, equipment, and materials.

Snow Load : The vertical load induced by the weight of snow, assumed to act on the horizontal projection of the roof of the structure.

(Note: Very wet snow 6″ deep is equal to one inch of water. One inch of water on a square foot of surface weighs five pounds.)

Wind Load: The forces imposed by the wind blowing from any direction.

Seismic Load: The load or loads acting in any direction on a structural system due to the action of an earthquake.

Auxiliary Loads: All dynamic live loads such as cranes and material handling systems.

Collateral Load : The weight of additional permanent materials, other than the weight of the metal building system, such as sprinklers, mechanical and electrical systems, and ceilings.

Resistance of Material to Forces

Loading has been defined as a force exerted on a building. Such forces, in turn, are transmitted through joints and connections to individual parts or components. This eventually leads to a consideration of the properties of materials to resist forces in order to provide the engineer with a basis for subsequent design calculations.

Stress:The force acting on a member divided by its area.

Tension: Stresses acting away from each other that produce a uniform stretching of a member.

Compression: Stresses acting toward each other that causes a member to compress.

Shear: Stress that tends to keep two adjoining planes of a material from sliding on each other under two equal and parallel forces acting in opposite directions.

For an illustration of a few of these terms, take a simple rubber eraser and draw evenly spaced straight lines across its width.

By grasping the eraser in both hands and pulling apart, you are exerting tension on the eraser. Its resistance to breaking is its internal resistance. This is indicated by the widening of the spaces between the lines drawn on the eraser.

Using the eraser again, grasp it in both hands and push towards the center of the eraser . Notice how the lines tend to become closer to each other. This is compression. The internal resistance of the eraser prevents its parts from being pushed together.

As an example of both tension and compression, grasp the eraser in both hands and bend it (Figure D). Notice that the top part of the eraser is stretching and is in tension, while the bottom part of the eraser is pushing together and is in compression.

Column Reactions

Any structure placed on a foundation causes a load to be imposed on that foundation. All buildings have these loads imposed by the columns on the foundation. These loads are called column reactions.

Column reactions are often expressed using the term “kip.” A kip is a commonly used engineering term for 1,000 pounds, derived from the contraction of the words Kilo (1,000) and Pound.

Framing structures exert a load on a foundation both vertically and horizontally. The vertical load is the result of the dead weight of the structure, and other loads such as snow on the roof, wind loads, crane loads, or seismic loads.

The horizontal load is the result of wind loads or seismic loads, and also produces the tendency of the base of rigid frame columns to spread apart under vertical load.

A third type of load arises from framing systems, which have fixed base columns. A streetlight or a flag poll is a common example of a fixed base column. When this type of column is subjected to wind loads, the foundation of such columns must be designed to resist the wind’s effort to overturn them. This overturning force is called a moment.

Engineers usually express the overturning moment as “foot-kips”. As an example, assume that the wind load against the wall of the building creates an effective force of 2,000 pounds against the top of a 12′ column.

The resulting moment at the base would be an overturning force or moment of 24 -ft- kips (2,000 Pounds or 2 kips x 12 feet = 24 -ft- kips).

You do not need to understand the total engineering involved, but you should know that the loads exist, and how they are expressed. You’ll find these loads shown on the anchor bolt drawings.

Load Transfer

Regardless of the type of load or where it is exerted on a rigid frame building, it is always transferred from part to part down to the foundation.

Assume, for example, a man standing on the roof. His weight is directly on the panels, but this load is transmitted through the panels to the purlins – the closest purlins taking the greatest part of the load. The purlins transfer the load to the rafter, the rafter to the column, then the column to the foundation.

The load at the base of the column will be a vertical load and also a horizontal thrust or “side kick”. These horizontal thrusts can become very sizeable figures and must be taken into consideration when designing foundations for rigid frame buildings.

A wind load on the sidewall of the rigid frame structure may produce uplift on the main frame as well as horizontal thrusts.

The foundation must be designed to support not only vertical loads, but also the horizontal thrust.

Building Codes

Building code is a set of minimum requirements for construction covering safety and serviceability. This safety involves life, health, fire, and structural stability. Most areas have enforced codes governing construction in the community. They may be administered by a city, county, or state, or by a combination of the three.

Building codes are necessary since their purpose is to benefit the public by helping eliminate unsafe design, poor construction practice, and unsightly buildings.

By the same token, they should be modern and clear. They should also provide for updating. Unfortunately, many communities have codes that are old and obsolete, and fail to recognize the parade of new materials and designs.

A community may originate and write its own codes, but generally it either adopts a recognized building code in its entirety, or modifies it for its specific use.

Here are some authoritative and well-known codes:

THE UNIFORM BUILDING CODE, (UBC) compiled by the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO). It is prominent on the West Coast and in some areas of the Midwest and South.

THE BOCA BASIC BUILDING CODE (formerly the National Building Code) is administered by Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA International) is primarily used East of the Mississippi and North of Tennessee.

THE STANDARD BUILDING CODE (SBC) covers most of the Gulf Coast states and other Southern areas. Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI) sponsors it.

International Building Code (IBC) Over the past several years the three national model building code bodies, SBCCI, BOCA, and ICBO have been working together to produce a single code to be used throughout the United States. The result of their labor is the International Building Code that was published in 2000 as the IBC 2000.

Many other building codes exist, but these are the major ones. An important point is that communities are not compelled to adopt any of these codes. They were compiled by groups of building officials, and are available for adoption by communities either in whole or in part.

From a building design viewpoint, the IBC code has adopted new requirements for live, wind, snow, and seismic loads. The rules for applying and combining these loads are much more complex than in previous codes, and in many cases cause higher loads to be used for designing the building. This can result in higher costs for building foundations as well as for the metal building structure.

There are new load maps in the code for wind load, snow load, and seismic loads. The wind load maps are based on 3-second gust wind loads, unlike the maps in the old codes that were based on sustained wind speeds. This means that the code specified wind speed for the whole country will be higher than before. Also, unlike some earlier codes, it is necessary to specify wind exposure categories and enclosure classifications.

The ground snow load maps in the new code are based on more recently accumulated data, but for most parts of the country the starting snow load values have not changed that much. However, there are new unbalanced snow load equations which drastically increase the roof snow load, especially for snow loads of 20 psf and greater.

The seismic provisions of the new code reflect the latest research for earthquake loads. The new seismic maps measure “Spectral Response Acceleration” for 0.2 and 1.0 seconds. This is a completely new approach to this problem. The IBC seismic equations and maps result in substantially higher imposed loads.

Because of all these changes, you must make sure to use the new load maps whenever you are using the IBC codes. Over time, many areas have responded to unusual storms by increasing the base load to guard against future collapses. Many of the wind and snow load provisions of the new code were written in response to such events.

The snow provisions in the new code, for instance, may result in unbalanced loads more than twice the basic roof snow load, even with no high-low conditions. The minimum wind speed on the maps is now 85 mph, in lieu of the old 70 mph minimum that has been effect for years.

Because of these changes, make sure to determine the values for the wind, snow, and seismic loads for a project only from the new maps. The majority of state and local jurisdictions will likely adopt this code during the next few years.

Codes are complicated and cover many phases of construction and differ from community to community. It is necessary that you become familiar with the codes that are applicable in your area. It is also advisable to discuss the code official’s interpretation of the codes. Interpretations of these codes can vary from official to official.

A building code is not intended to function as a building specification, such as an architect would write for an individual structure. It is a legal document. The purpose of this document does not go beyond the establishment of those minimum design and construction requirements that are essential to, and directly related to, the safety, health, and welfare of the public.

Steel Design

Because of the various properties and characteristics of steel, many factors must be considered when designing both individual members and completed structures. Two organizations have published manuals that provide data and standards on which to base calculations for the design of steel:

AISC – The American Institute of Steel Construction was originated by steel fabricators and is generally concerned with hot rolled shapes and plates.

AISI – The American Iron and Steel Institute was originated by steel producers and is concerned with cold-formed steel structural members.

The Manufacturer’s products, where applicable, are designed in accordance with AISI and AISC specifications. This is a mark of sound design and engineering practices, and contributes to the high quality of our products

Today, we see many kinds of roofs and roofing materials: wood shingle, plastic or composition shingles, tar paper, tile, slate, built-up roofs, and various kinds of metal roofs. For our purposes we need only study the types most frequently used for nonresidential use: Metal Roofs, Built-Up Roofs, and Single-Ply Roofs.

Metal Roofs

Even though we have frequently pointed to metal buildings as the “modern way to build,” it is interesting to observe that metals have long been recognized as the best roofing materials.

In order to obtain the many advantages offered by metal at a reasonable price, today’s building owner can now turn to roof panels made of either aluminum, aluminum-zinc alloy coated steel, or aluminum clad steel; all of which are available at relatively economical prices.

Originally, metal sheets used for roofing were flat and it was necessary to join them by either welding or soldering, or to introduce lap seams and joints. To facilitate this type of installation, it became a common practice to crimp or flange the edges of the panels. Later, in order to provide panels with greater strength, the metal sheet was formed so as to have ribs or corrugations.

The illustration below represents an early application of this principle of the continuous corrugated panel. Although largely replaced by more appealing configurations, it is still available through our components division and is known as the “C” and “D” panel. The “D” panel has the extra purlin bearing leg for roof application.

Standard Screw Down Roof Panel

To help achieve just the look you want in your new building, we have a selection of attractive, long-life, low-maintenance panel systems.

The deep-ribbed “PBR” panel is ideal for roof and wall applications. It provides an even-shadowed look designed for commercial and industrial applications.

PBR Panel

Description: This purlin bearing leg panel is used for the roof, deep ribs create an even-shadowed appearance. The area between the ribs is reinforced.

Gauge: 26 and 24

Length: 45′ maximum is standard but longer lengths available by special request.

Fasteners: Standard coated, zinc- aluminum cast head, or stainless steel head screw.

Dimensions: 36″ coverage x 1 ” deep.

Finish: Galvalume Plus® and Commercial – Industrial Series Paint.

Usage: Roof or wall panel applications. As a roof panel the “PBR” panel offers the extra purlin bearing leg and offers more leakage protection.

Limitations: Not designed for coverage over bar joist. Not designed to be used as rigid secondary. Five foot on center purlin spacing.

Features and Benefits of the “PBR” Panel:

1. 36″ coverage allows ease of installation.
2. Die formed ridge saves time on installation.
3. The panel is manufactured at all plants allowing low freight to any location.
4. Start installation at either end; therefore, allows flexible installation.
5. The economical profile is cost effective.
6. Finish Warranty available. The panel has a 20-year life span when used with long life fasteners.
7. Profile light transmitting panels are available for the “PBR” Panel.
8. Extra Purlin Bearing Leg ensures flush fit for better sidelap connections, and fewer leaks.

PBR Roof Panel Installation

It is recommended that both sides of the ridge of a building be sheeted simultaneously. This will keep the insulation covered for the maximum amount of time, and the panel ribs can be kept in proper alignment for the ridge panel or cap. As the sheeting progresses, check for proper coverage. See illustration for panel sheeting sequence.

Ridge Panel/Cap

The ridge of the building is the horizontal line formed by opposing sloping sides of a roof running parallel with the building length. The ridge is covered by a transition of the roofing material, often called a Ridge Panel or Ridge Cap. When a ridge panel matches the configuration of the roof panel, it is called a die formed ridge panel.

Die formed ridge panels are to be installed as each side of the roof is sheeted. This aids in keeping both sides of the roof aligned. See illustration for clarification.

Standing Seam Roof Panel Systems

We offer four different Standing Seam Roof Panel Systems:

• Ultra-Dek®
• Double-Lok®
• BattenLok® Architectural Panel
• SuperLok®

The screw down roof is obviously the most economical choice for a roofing system. However, at times a roof may require a standing seam panel system, especially on a building with a roof slope of 1/2:12 or less. Overall benefits and selling points of a standing seam roof system are:

1.Unique Floating Clip

The standing seam system is designed to cope with the forces of expansion and contraction with a unique floating steel clip that allows the roof panels to move freely up and down the roof slope. The floating clip is also self-centering, insuring thermal expansion capability in either direction.

2.Virtually Leak Proof

The Standing Seam Systems are virtually leak proof, since the only penetration made in the roof during installation is in the eave panel, which is located outside the building shell. Standing Seam eliminates penetrations elsewhere in the roof, which are the major causes of leaks.

3.Ideal Retrofit Roof System

Standing Seam systems are ideal for new building roofs, and as a replacement roof for older buildings having either a metal or built-up roof. In some cases standing seam panels can be installed without interrupting normal business operations. When retrofitting with standing seam, building owners also have the opportunity to install additional insulation that can result in significantly lower heating and cooling costs.

4.Energy Efficient/Lower Operating Costs

Standing Seam roof systems easily accommodate insulation material to provide a building that is highly energy efficient. When special insulation requirements occur, thermal barrier materials are available for use over the purlins in order to effectively reduce heat transfer and maintain the thermal integrity of the roof system.

Properly installed, a building with a standing seam roof system can mean lower initial heating and cooling equipment costs, as well as lower fuel costs over the life of the structure.

5.Technical Support

The Manufacturer’s technical staff supports the needs of architects, contractors and owners by providing detailed product specification information and engineering or design assistance. The standing seam roof systems are designed to meet the ever-changing AISI specifications and other industry codes. This technical support ensures that each roof is right for each building.

6.Longevity of Materials

To ensure long life, all standing seam roof systems are formed from 24 gauge Galvalume Plus®, an aluminum-zinc alloy coating applied to the steel substrate by the hot-dip process in accordance with ASTM A-792.

When a painted finish is desired, we offer the superior Royal K-70® fluorocarbon paint coating, formulated with 70% polyvinyulidene fluoride resins. The Manufacturer stands behind Royal K-70® painted panels with a comprehensive optional warranty assuring protection for up to twenty years against blistering, peeling, cracking, chipping, excessive color fade and chalk.

7.System Quality and Performance

The standing seam roof systems eliminate the need for through fasteners by interlocking panel edges at a raised seam, utilizing a factory applied sealant. This, in conjunction with the floating action of the concealed clip assembly, is the basis of the superior performance of The Manufacturer’s standing seam roof systems. Combined with weather tight construction, excellent materials and overall strength these qualities result in a versatile, efficient and maintenance free roof system with a lasting appearance and structural integrity.

Ultra-Dek® and Double-Lok®

Panel Size: 24″ wide, 3″ high standing seam

Configuration: The female leg is suitable to accept the other male leg and form a locking assembly or seam.

Gauge: 24 gauge structural quality aluminum alloy coated. Minimum yield stress of 50,000 psi. 22 gauge available upon request but not a standard offering.

Substrate: Galvalume Plus®

Standard Colors: Architectural Series

Warranty: 20-year available

Sealant: Factory applied mastic

Insulation: Can accept up to 6″ of fiberglass and 1″ rigid thermal blocks

Endlaps:Prepunched endlaps ensure proper placement of fasteners. Mastic is applied between panels and secured with #1/4 – 14 x 1 1/4″ self-tapping fasteners through the panels and into the backup plate to form a compression joint.

Fasteners: Standard coated, zinc- aluminum cast head, or stainless steel head screw.

Light Transmitting Panels: Optional insulated or non-insulated

Ultra-Dek®

Usage: New and retrofit applications

Limitations: Recommended for roof slopes of 1/4:12 or greater. When using the fixed clip we recommend for double slope buildings 200′ wide or less, and single slope buildings 100′ wide or less. (May vary upon extreme weather conditions).

Features and Benefits of Ultra-Dek®:

1.No panel penetration is required inside the building envelope other than at the endlaps connected by a compression joint, which seals out the elements.

2.Panel side laps arrive at the job site containing factory-applied sealant, which contributes to the system’s weather tight construction.

3.Optional weather tightness warranty that assures that the roof system will remain weather tight for extended service life.

4.May be factory notched at both ends, allowing for field installation to commence or finish from either end of the building.

5.Endlaps have a 16 gauge backup plate with prepunched holes allowing for a solid connection at endlaps and proper fastener spacing.

6.High or low clips accommodate a variety of insulation systems, with up to 1″ thermal spacers at the purlin.

7.Does not use the mechanically seamed system. This panel interlocks when snapped together; therefore, there is no need for seaming equipment, allowing ease of installation.

8.Economical standing seam roof panel.

Double-Lok®

Usage: New and retrofit applications.

Limitations: Recommended for roof slopes of 1/4:12 or greater. When using the fixed clip we recommend for double slope buildings 200′ wide or less and single slope buildings 100′ wide or less (May vary upon extreme weather conditions). Oil canning is not a reason for rejection.

Features and Benefits of Double-Lok®:

1.No panel penetration is required over the building envelope other than at the end laps, which are connected by a compression joint, which is specially designed to seal out the elements.

2.Panel side laps arrive at the job site containing a factory pre-applied sealant, which contributes to the system’s weather tight construction.

3.Optional product and weather tightness warranty is available, contributing to additional customer confidence.

4.May be factory notched at both ends allowing for field installation to commence or finish from either end of building or on both sides simultaneously

5.Endlaps have a 16 gauge backup plate with prepunched holes allowing for a solid connection at endlaps and proper fastener spacing.

6.High or low clips can accommodate a variety of insulation systems, including 1″ thermal spacers at the purlins.

7.80% less exposed fasteners than traditional side lap panels and all fasteners are long life allowing for increased weather tightness.

8.Panels available in low-gloss Kynar® paint with a 20-year finish warranty, which minimizes appearance of oil canning.

9.The side lap has been tested for air infiltration and water penetration under ASTM E283 and E331 methods. Minimal air infiltration and water penetration and acceptability among specifiers.

BattenLok® – Architectural Standing Seam Panel

Panel Size: 16 inches wide, 2 inch high standing seam

Gauge: 24 gauge, 22 gauge available on request but not standard

Substrate: Galvalume Plus®

Standard Colors: Architectural Series

Warranty: 20-year available

Sealant: Factory applied

Insulation: Can accept up to 6 inches blanket fiberglass and 1 inch rigid board thermal blocks

Seamed: Roof is mechanically seamed in the field

Concealed Clips: A choice of concealed fastening clips is available for this panel system including UL rated clips. These clips hold the panel firmly in place without unsightly exposed fasteners. Each clip system offers the ability to accommodate thermal movement.

Ideal Retrofit Roof System

Usage: This panel is a structural panel that spans up to five feet on purlins, or can be used as an architectural panel over a solid deck. This flat panel is designed with striations to minimize oil canning. It is designed to meet the ever-changing AISI specification and other industry codes.

Limitations: Recommended for roof slopes of 1/2:12 or greater. Oil canning is not a reason for rejection.

Advantages of BattenLok®:

1.Aesthetically pleasing architectural design with vertical ribbed seams, which are easily custom flashed.

2.A great product for hip and valley, and turndown mansard application. The panels can be turned down over the eaves to form a wall panel appearance.

3.A feature of the BattenLok® is that the sidelaps are mechanically seamed with an electric seamer for a sure lock.

4.This system features easy to handle 16″ wide panels with over 50 years of service in the marketplace. The proven durability and performance of the BattenLok® panel, with the factory-installed mastic and swaged endlaps, ensures weather tightness.

5.BattenLok® is a structural panel that spans up to five feet on purlins, or can be used as an architectural panel on plywood and felt substrate.

6.BattenLok® is a flat panel with vertical ribs creating no voids, therefore, no eave closure plugs are required

7.BattenLok® is designed to meet the ever-changing AISI specifications and other industry codes

8.The natural forces of expansion and contraction can cause roof leaks with conventinal roof materials. The BattenLok® system is installed using special clip assemblies that allow for roof movement. This system is designed to handle thermal shock; therefore, it won’t crack, blister, absorb moisture or require painting, patching, or caulking usually needed with ordinary nonmetal roof system.

SuperLok®

Description: The SuperLok® standing seam roof system blends the aesthetics of an architectural panel with the strength of a structural panel. This panel has earned uplift ratings that are the highest in the industry for standing seam roofs, assuring the reliability of performance. This panel is Factory Mutual approved to satisfy stringent code requirements and is ICBO approved.

Gauge: 22 and 24 (Minimum quantity may be required)

Finish: Galvalume Plus® and Architectural Series

Lengths: Recommended 50′ 0″ maximum.

Fasteners: Concealed fastening system. A choice of concealed fastening clips is available for this panel system including UL rated clips. These clips hold the panels firmly in place without unsightly exposed fasteners. Each clip system offers the ability to accommodate thermal movement.

Dimensions: 12″, or 16″ wide and 2″ high

Usage: SuperLok® is a field-seamed panel that combines a slim rib with exceptional uplift resistance. This panel has been designed to withstand the most rigorous conditions. This system was designed to be installed over open framing, 5/8″ plywood, or a composite roof assembly may be used as alternate substructures.

Limitations: Minimum recommended slope: 1/2 on 12.

Features and Benefits of SuperLok®:

1.Can be installed over purlins and bar joists.

2.Factory notched for endlaps allowing ease of installation.

3.Clip allows 2″ panel movement allowing for expansion and contraction.

4.Sealant factory applied for less field labor and longer life.

5.Weather tightness warranty available

6.Metal Closures for longevity

7.Machine seamed which meets stringent code requirements, such as, Factory Mutual

Oil Canning

BattenLok® and SuperLok® panels have striated surfaces to meet the demand of any design challenge. While the Manufacturer has recognized and responded to this requirement we have a responsibility to point out that a wide and perfectly flat appearance is not possible. In some wide products, panel distortion, called oil canning, will occur and tolerance and/or additional support behind the panel may be more visible under certain lighting conditions. Minimizing foot traffic during and after installation can eliminate the need for additional support behind panel faces.

The Built-Up Roof

Built-up roofing is so called simply because it is a combination of layers of various materials built-up into a composite covering from a base or roof deck. This type of roof is particularly suitable for flat surfaces; and when made of good materials and properly installed, it may provide satisfactory protection from the elements for many types of commercial, community, and industrial buildings.

Presenting general information about built-up roofs is difficult because so many types are available. A comparison of any two built-up roofs must take into consideration the relative quality of materials and workmanship, as well as any differences in basic design.

Built-up roofing can be laid on decking made of wood, steel, gypsum, or concrete slab. Probably the most common roof in use today is installed on steel decking, which is supported by a bar joist system. Steel roof decking is usually made of 22 or 24 gauge steel and is fastened to the bar joists by welds or screws. Although different applicators might use a variation of materials and procedures, here is one example of a built-up roof on a metal deck.

The first step involves the installation of rigid board roof insulation with screws or nails through disks or plates. If a second layer of insulation is specified the joints are staggered and a recommended adhesive or asphaltic bitumen bonds the two layers together. Once in place the insulation is mopped or strip coated in preparation for the next layers.

Next, several layers of roofing felt are laid between mopped-on layers of heavy bitumen. Roofing felt is made of heavy paper or cloth, impregnated with waterproofing materials. Generally from 3 to 5 layers are applied. The number of layers properly installed determines the permanence of the roof system.

Finally, a protective-wearing surface of gravel, slag, marble chips, or a roof coating material is often spread over the topcoat of tar. Built-up roofs represent an area of considerable competition, and you will find it beneficial to become knowledgeable on the various types and methods used in your area.

Advantages of a Built-Up Roof

1. Built-Up roofs accommodate roof penetrations with relative ease.
2. Built-up roofs have enjoyed public acceptance for many years.
3. Built-up roofs are well adapted to the construction of flat or very low pitch roofs.

Disadvantages of a Built-Up Roof

1. Due to ultra-violet breakdown, the life cycle expectancy of this type of roof system is very limited.
2. Maintenance is often necessary and expensive. Tars and asphalts gradually lose their natural oils, dry out and crack with exposure to the natural elements.
3. The bonds or warranty on built-up roofs have many limiting conditions.
4. They are not usually fire-safe.
5. Trouble spots and damage are not easily detected until it is too late to correct them economically.

Single-Ply Roofing Membranes

A new generation of roofing membranes has established itself along side the traditional built-up roofs. Made of synthetic elastomers, the new materials are generally provided in preformed sheets. The preformed sheets are delivered to the site in rolls. The rolls are sometimes large enough to cover an entire roof area, but most of the time; successive strips are placed adjacent to one another and sealed where they overlap.

The ability of elastomeric to elongate, even in subfreezing temperatures, may be their greatest asset as roofing membranes. Substrate movement, a by product of normal building movement, is accommodated by elastomeric roofing systems with its physical characteristics and installation techniques. Elastomeric roofing membranes are in general single-layered, synthetic polymer materials with elastic properties.

Types of Single-Ply Roofing Membranes:

Neoprene: The first synthetic rubber. Neoprene exhibits good resistance to petroleum oils, solvents, heat and weathering.

EPDM: An elastomer synthesized from ethylene, propylene and a small proportion of a diene monomer. It has good resistance to ozone and is inexpensive, and lightweight.

Thermoplastic Materials

PVC (polyvinyl chloride): Through plasticizing and proper formulation, PVC materials can be obtained which show elastomeric properties and ease of installation.

ECB: This thermoplastic material is a mixture of ethylene, copolymer, bitumen, and anthracite micro-dust. The membrane resists aging and the effects of weathering, and can be repeatedly heat formed without detriment to its original qualities.

PVC and EPDM currently dominate the preformed sheet market.

Methods of Erection Elastomeric Roofing Membranes Can Be Installed in One of Three Ways:

1. Loose Laid
2. Partially Adhered
3. Fully Adhered

Loose Laid

The loose laid system directly illustrates the principle behind elastomeric membrane design: floating free, the roofing membrane expands to accommodate substrate movement at any part of the roof.

A typical loose laid system is held in place with ballast, preferably river bottom gravel. Insulation is placed directly on the substrate without attachment. There is no bonding between the loose laid membrane and the substrate, except at the perimeter of the roof and at the roof penetrations. These areas require careful design and installation. If the membrane consists of more than one section, a sealing technique is applied to achieve a band at the laps. The ballast weight is typically specified between 5 and 10 pounds per square inch, depending on the size and shape, and protects the membrane from the ultra violet rays of the sun and wind uplift.

Partially Adhered

The partially adhered is a modification of the loose laid system. The partially adhered system provides for a restricted amount of movement and partial bonding is achieved with the use of adhesive or with a combination of adhesive and mechanical fasteners. If adhesive is the bonding agent, it is applied in strips to allow for a specified percentage of unbonded area. To separate sections of the membrane from the substrate, a bond breaker such as masking tape is sometimes used.

If bonding with mechanical fasteners, generally nails or screws with disks or plates, are installed on top of the insulation and serve to attach the insulation to the roof deck (substrate). The membrane is then bonded to the disks or insulation board with the adhesive.

Fully Adhered

The fully adhered system bonds the entire membrane to substrate with an adhesive and often with mechanical fasteners as well. The fully adhered system functions very much like a conventional built-up roof.

The decks (substrates) commonly used with elastomeric systems are metal deck, concrete, and plywood.

Seams

The integrity of elastomeric roofing systems is directly related to the proper installation of seams. Two types of seams are performed with elastomeric sheets, most commonly lap seams and very infrequently, butt seams.

Both sealants and sealing techniques must be compatible with the membrane materials. The following is a list of sealing methods and materials:

Adhesive is used with thermosetting materials such as neoprene and EPDM. The adhesive is usually applied to both substrate and to the bottom surface of the membrane. The sheets bond directly to the substrate, and mechanical pressure is usually applied to assure bond strength.

Heat welding is used with thermoplastic materials such as PVC. A controlled source of heat melts the material until it welds itself together.

Solvent welding is again used with materials such as PVC and is a technique interchangeable with heat welding. The material becomes soluble in solvent cement and the seams are fused together. Immediately afterward mechanical pressure should be applied to achieve proper bond strength.

Other methods are utilized with other materials, but the methods just described are primarily used.

Advantages of Single-Ply Membranes

1. Economical Installation
2. Roof Penetrations are Easily Accommodated
3. Expansion and Contraction
4. Lightweight

Disadvantages of Single-Ply Membranes

1. Short Life Cycle (Ultra-Violet Breakdown)
2. Dependency Upon Workmanship
3. Susceptible to Foot Traffic Punctures
4. High Cost of Material
5. Material is Combustible

Roof Protection

By studying the details of various roof systems you will acquire basic product knowledge that makes you familiar with the specifications, types of material, fastening systems, options and applications of our different metal roof systems. The objective is to provide you with the best possible roof protection, equal with your needs and your budget.

One of the most important functions of a building is to keep out the elements: rain, ice, snow, and wind.

Built-up roofs can, of course, be quite satisfactory, but organic materials must eventually decay; therefore, it is necessary to establish a budget for periodic maintenance to assure the lasting weather tightness of built-up roofs. On the other hand, many building systems manufacturers make roofs of materials such as coated galvanized steel, aluminum, copper, aluminum coated and aluminum zinc alloy. Inorganic materials take a firmer stand against the elements.

Even an inorganic roof that is weather tight at the time of construction may cause the owner inconvenience and costly maintenance if the original design failed to consider the effects of wind uplift and expansion and contraction.

Wind Uplift

When the wind blows over the roof of a building, suction is created. Similar to the airfoil effect on the wing of an airplane, this exerts an upward pull, or wind uplift, on the roof. Therefore, the stronger the wind, the stronger the upward force wanting to separate the roof from its supporting framework.

Expansion and Contraction

Every roof moves due to expansion and contraction. Unlike the forces of wind uplift, you cannot resist the forces of expansion and contraction without impairing the weather tightness of your roof. Therefore, your roof must be designed to allow for that movement.

Both the Manufacturer’s screw down and standing seam roof systems allow for roof movement horizontally (across the width of the building) and longitudinally (along the length of the building).

The screw down roof system allow for the horizontal movement by the panel corrugation, while the natural roll of the purlin handles the movement in the other horizontal direction. When the roof contracts due to the cold, the purlins have a natural tendency to roll toward the ridge. When the roof expands due to the heat, the purlins have a natural tendency to roll away from the ridge. The forces of expansion and contraction would cause fasteners to be loosened, requiring annual maintenance if the Manufacturer did not allow for the horizontal movement.

The standing seams roof systems allow for horizontal movement in a much different fashion. The horizontal movement in one direction is again handled by panel corrugation, and the movement in the other direction is accomplished with a floating clip, which joins the panels to the purlins without the need of any holes through the panel’s roof surface. The floating clip allows the roof to move horizontally 2″ in each direction, accommodating for the expansion and contraction imposed on the roof.

However, with a standing seam roof, the purlins have a bracing system of knock-in-bridging to reduce the natural roll of the purlins. The standing seam roof clip is attached to the purlins via self-drilling fasteners, and the clip is attached to the panel leg. The knock-in-bridging helps the purlin system to be more rigid. If the purlins were to move the standing seam roof system would not resist wind uplift or live load forces and the clips would not stay fastened correctly.

When a building length gets over 500 feet, it may be necessary to also accommodate for longitudinal movement. Expansion and contraction of a buildings roof system causes lengthwise movement. The Manufacturer may accommodate for longitudinal movement with an expansion joint and transition trim. An expansion joint is basically an extra slotted clip attached to the purlins, allowing the purlins to move in the longitudinal direction. If longitudinal movement is not accommodated for the sidelap of the panel system, it may have the tendency to tear apart.

All roofs are subjected to these different forces of nature; wind uplift, horizontal movement and longitudinal movement due to expansion and contraction, live load, or snow load. The optimum roof system is one that is designed and constructed so that it is anchored securely to the building (to support wind or live load). However, the roof system should be able to move in any horizontal or longitudinal direction (to allow for the horizontal and longitudinal pushing and pulling of expansion and contraction). It should also maintain the complete weather tight integrity of the roof. Few built-up or traditional roofs can do that. We have unique and patented roof systems that are designed and tested to withstand these forces.

Retrofit Roofing Solutions

A significant market for SBS has become available utilizing the Retro-R®, BattenLok®, Ultra-Dek®, and Double-Lok® roof systems as not only a re-roofing solution, for both built-up and metal roofs, but also a new roof solution for ordinary construction.

Built-up Roof being Retrofitted with Standing Seam Roof System and added insulation.

Completed Retrofit using Standing Seam Roof System.

Re-roofing has often been thought of as a last resort. Only after a present roof has been patched, repaired, resealed and repaired again, will a building union consider installing a new roof on his/her present building.

Retro-R® Panel

Description: Retro-R®, the patented retrofit roof system is the fastest and most economical solution to your re-roofing dilemma. This one-step setup is designed for easy installation over your existing metal roof. Retro-R® is cost effective with savings up to 50% over other roofing solutions. And because it is so easy to install, Retro-R® will not interrupt the normal course of your business. Retro-R® is available in a wide variety of colors or with a Galvalume Plus® finish. Let Retro-R® save the day, by saving time and money.

Gauge: 29

Finish: Galvalume Plus®, and Commercial Industrial Series

Fasteners: The manufacturer recommends a “Long life fastener”. The manufacturer does not recommend self-drilling fasteners.

Advantages of Retrofit Roof Systems:

1.Get rid of leaks for the long term. Compared to traditional roofing systems, Retrofit roofs provide superior weather tightness, effectively draining rain and snow. Unlike flat built-up roofs, Retrofit roof systems are sloped, so water doesn’t stand. They also drain to the building’s exterior, further decreasing the chance of leaks. In certain environments, the life cycle of a Retrofit roof system can extend 40 years or more when properly maintained.

2.Save on Maintenance. Materials in built-up roofs expand and contract at different rates during temperature changes, causing cracking, flaking and shrinking. Retrofit roof systems expand and contract at the same rate, minimizing damage. They also resist corrosion thanks to the aluminum-zinc alloy coating.

3.Save on Energy Bills. When installed correctly with the proper insulation, Retrofit roof systems can lower climate control costs, saving more money.

4.Fast, easy installation. Because the Retrofit roof systems simply cover your existing built-up roof, installation is fast, convenient and economical. There is no need to interrupt daily business activities, and in some cases, can be installed with no on-site modification.

5.Update Building’s Exterior. With a Retrofit roof system, you can enhance an outdated roof, or simply dress up the building’s appearance, quickly and easily. Retrofit roof systems feature innovative design details and adapt to facades and light transmitting panels.

Fact is, even the best built-up roofs can leak, but a retrofit metal roofing system substantially lowers chances of roof failure due to atmospheric conditions. With proper installation, these durable, weather tight roofs can provide years of trouble-free protection. They go up over the existing roof so there’s no troublesome material tear-off or costly interruption of daily operations. What’s more, a Retrofit system is an economical way to enhance the facility’s exterior.

It has become a must to offer a striking design and visual appeal to sell any types or style of building in today’s market. Descriptive words such as, eye-catching, modern, attractive, elegant, and beautiful, appeal to the prospective customer. The increasing trend toward a more sophisticated design is one of the greatest advantages in the metal building system.

While the roof provides overhead protection from the weather, and steel framing provides the supporting framework, neither contributes as much to exterior appeal as the wall system.

Types of Walls

The types of wall materials available today are practically unlimited. They can range from wood, brick and block, tilt up panels to metal panels. From the viewpoint of building construction, walls are divided into two major groups: load-bearing wall construction and skeleton-frame construction.

Load-Bearing Wall Construction

Load-bearing wall construction has been the method of structural design employed since the earliest days of the Roman Empire. The walls support their own weight plus the remaining load of the building.

In this method, roof beams and bar joists rest upon the exterior walls, which, in turn, transmit the loads to the foundations. It is evident that walls must be of sufficient strength to carry resultant loads as well as their own weight. Consequently, as height of buildings increase the required thickness of walls and the weights brought upon the foundations become excessive and uneconomical. And although this type of wall construction is still in use today, a more modern and functional system has been introduced, called the curtain wall and frame system.

Curtain Wall and Frame System

Curtain wall and frame construction is a popular way to build for commercial occupants. Not only can it be more economical, but also the unlimited selection of exterior materials provides superior wall systems that are difficult to surpass. Lighter weight and more economical walls offer better insulating efficiency as well. Greater flexibility in material and color selection is available. And, in most instances, curtain walls are faster and easier to erect.

Wall Systems

Wall panels play an important role in the visual aesthetics of a building. Although appearance is very important, it is usually not the only objective. Performance and budgetary constraints must also be important considerations.

If the wall is to be insulated, standard white vinyl blanket insulation in thickness of 3″, 4″, and 6″ is often used. It is field installed by sandwiching the roll insulation between the girts and the covering panels. The tabs of adjoining insulation rolls are folded and stapled to assure good vapor barrier.

Wall Accessories

Many of our wall systems are available with the following wall accessories:

• Walk Doors
• Overhead Door Framed Openings
• Aluminum Horizontal Slide Windows
• Aluminum Narrow Lite Accent Windows
• Wall Louvers
• Slide Doors
• Light Transmitting Wall Panels (roof or wall lights)
• Liner Panels

PBR Panel

Description: This panel is used both for the roof and sidewalls; the “PBR” Panel’s deep ribs create an even-shadowed appearance. The area between the major ribs is reinforced with minor ribs. The “PBR” panel is one of the most economical wall covering systems.

Gauge: 29, 26, 24 and 22.

Length: 45′ maximum is standard but longer lengths available by special request.

Fasteners: Standard coated, zinc- aluminum cast head, or stainless steel head screw.

Dimensions: 36″ coverage x 1 1/4″ deep.

Finish: Galvalume Plus® and Commercial – Industrial Series.

Usage: Roof, wall, liner, mansard, and soffit panel applications.

“PBR” Panel Features and Benefits:

1. 36″ Coverage for ease of erection.
2. Manufactured at all plants for low freight to any location.
3. Start installation at either end for flexible erection.
4. Economical profile that is cost effective.
5. Finish Warranty – 20-year life when used with long life fasteners.
6. The panel provides diaphragm capabilities and girt stability in metal building construction.
7. Profile wall lights are available for the “PBR” Panel.
8. The panel can be reverse rolled putting the paint finish on the under side for installation as a wall panel.

PBA Panel

Description: The Architectural “PBA” Panel for sidewalls produces a decorative smooth shadow line creating a distinctive architectural effect with semi-concealed fasteners. Ribs are 1 1/8″ deep and major corrugations spaced 12″ on center. The net coverage of panel is 3′-0″.

Gauge: 26 and 24.

Lengths: Maximum recommended 45′ 0″. Longer lengths available on special order.

Fasteners: Various, depending on application.

Finish: Galvalume Plus® and Commercial – Industrial Series.

Dimensions: 36″ wide by 1 1/8″ deep.

Usage: Wall panel, liner panel, soffit panel, mansard panel face, and back sheet.

Limitations: Installation may be difficult with very thick insulation.

“PBA” Panel Features and Benefits:

1. Semi-concealed fastener panel for attractive architectural application.
2. The striations reduce oil canning, textured appearance.
3. Available in the standard Dura-20®, which is a silicone polyester color offered with a standard 20-year warranty.
4. Single continuous panel to sill until panel exceeds 40′-0 length for attractive application with no end laps, and ease of installation.
5. Royal K-70® premium finish optional for a finish with 20-year warranty, ultimate resistance to color change and chalk.
6. Embossed texture available, embossing the metal reduces glare and the potential for oil canning.
7. Fire rating, the panel carries a UL “Class A” fire rating.

PBU Panel

Description: This utility panel with ribs 6″ on centers is especially useful for liners, partitions, soffits, etc., because of its shallower 3/4″ deep ribs and relative ease of installation.

Gauge: 29, 26, 24, and 22.

Finish: Galvalume Plus® and Commercial Industrial Series (29, 24, and 22 Ga. available in Polar White and Galvalume Plus®).

Lengths: Maximum recommended 40′ 0″. Longer lengths available on special order.

Usage: Wall panel, liner panel, soffit panel, mansard panel face, and back sheet.

“PBU” Panel Features and Benefits:

1. Dura-20® has 20-year warranty.
2. Reverse rolled profile that places color on the reverse side of the panel yields a flat profile appearance with fasteners recessed in flutes.
3. Fire rating, the panel carries a UL “Class A” fire rating.
4. Single continuous panel eave to sill until panel exceeds 40′-0″ length causing an attractive appearance with no end laps, and ease of installation.
5. Royal K-70® optional finish that offers the premium paint finish with 20-year warranty, ultimate resistance to color changes and chalks.
6. Face fastener that yields diaphragm capabilities and girt stability.
7. Embossed texture optional, embossing the metal reduces glare and the potential for oil canning.
8. Optional Perforated condition for ventilation or acoustical applications.

NuWall™

Description: NuWall™ combines the ease of installation in both new and retrofit applications with a pleasing aesthetic appeal. The shadow lines created with the NuWall™ panel will enhance any structure’s appearance. Installation of panels is performed completely outside with no disruption of the workplace on the inside.

Gauge: 22, 24, and 26 (All gauges have a minimum quantity required)

Finish: Galvalume Plus® and Architectural Series.

Lengths: Recommended 40′-0″ maximum.

Fasteners: Concealed fastening system. The panel is attached to the structure with self-drilling fasteners on one side of the panel only. No clips are required. The adjoining panel simply snaps into the previous panel, concealing the fasteners from view.

Dimensions: 12″ wide 1″ high.

Usage: NuWall™ is ideal for both new and retrofit applications. In retrofit applications, the NuWall™ panel can be installed over an existing “PBR” or “M” panel wall. This saves both labor and material. Other panel profiles and other forms of construction may require the use of sub-girts.

Flat Panels – Artisan Series

Description: The simplicity of the Artisan Series panel is its best design feature. Uniform dimensions and clean appearance allow the designer to plan modules, eliminate complicated pieces, and follow wall curvatures.

Gauge: 26, 24, and 22 (26 and 22 Ga. may require minimum quantity).

Finish: Galvalume Plus® and Polar White (Smooth or Embossed Texture with or without stiffener breaks), Commercial – Industrial Series.

Lengths: Maximum recommended 20′-0″ Rules of Thumb for Artisan Panel Lengths:

• Up to 4′-0″ Long Use L12, L10, or L8
• 4′-0″ to 10′-0″ Long Use L8 Only

Fasteners: Concealed fastening system Artisan Series panels use the Positive fastening method and are attached directly to the substructure. The fastener is concealed behind the flush face.

Dimensions: 8″, 10″, and 12″ wide by 1″ high.

Usage: The Artisan panels are used for soffits and interior liners.

Artisan Series Limitations:

1. The panel provides no diaphragm action due to the concealed fastener design. Installation over thick or reinforced blanket insulation may induce oil canning. The product is designed for application over rigid framing.
2. The product is susceptible to oil canning and should be sold in the heaviest gauge, embossed and with grooves when possible.
3. Not recommended for external wall application.

Artisan Series Features and Benefits:

1. Factory applied sidelap sealant for watertight connection.
2. The panel sidelap has passed tests for air infiltration and water penetration per ASTM E283 and E331 test procedures.
3. The panels qualify for 1, 1 1/2, and 2 hour UL fire ratings when installed under certain composite construction methods. This provides possible lower insurance costs, and meets code requirements.
4. Perforation available for ventilation or acoustical applications.
5. The panel is available in the rock wall option, which is an aggregate coating for aesthetic applications.
6. Structural integrity due to panel depth and gauge availability, large spanning conditions are available.
7. Finish warranties available, a 20-year warranty is available for Galvalume Plus® and a 20-year warranty is available for Royal K-70®.

ShadowRib™

Description: ShadowRib™ combines aesthetics, economics, and function to bring definition to metal structures. ShadowRib™ is a proven performer and a versatile tool to the designer.

Gauge: 24 and 22 (22 Ga. minimum quantity may be required).

Finish: Galvalume Plus® and Architectural Series.

Lengths: Maximum recommended 40′-0″.

Fasteners: Concealed fastening system. Panels may be secured to the structure from outside the building with the ShadowRib™ concealed clip, or from inside the building with an expansion fastener. Both are positive fastening methods that create secure interlock between panel and structure.

Dimensions: 16″ wide by 3″ high.

Usage: The ShadowRib™ panel can be used for walls, fascias, and equipment screens. Apply the panel over light gauge framing, purlins, girts, structural steel, and joists. In many instances, the panel can span from floor to ceiling without interior support, making it ready to apply a variety of insulation methods into the 3″ cavity.

Exclusively from Insulated Panel Systems is the “SSP” roof panel. The “SSP” panels are ideal for temperature controlled roof systems and can be snapped together with IPS’s patented Versalok™ sidelaps then mechanically seamed. IPS’s “EWP” Wall Panels, “ESP” Wall Panels, and the “IPP” Partition Panel system are all thermally efficient, affordable, aesthetically pleasing products. All of the wall panels are available with our Rockwall™ system. The Rockwall™ process bonds real stone aggregate to steel panels, combining the advantages of steel with the durability and beauty of stone aggregate.

Insulated EWP Wall Panel

Description: “EWP” panels offer contemporary styling in an easily installed panel that is manufactured in the thickness of 2″ or 4″. “EWP” uses a joint with concealed fasteners. The ribbed profile gives the building a strong vertical accent that is ideal for metal building applications. Both exterior and interior metal skins have stucco embossed pre-painted finish. The panel is designed to module on 36″ width.

Gauge: 22, 24, and 26 (22 Ga. minimum order required).

Finish: Both faces are stucco embossed, Rockwall™ Stone-Coated, silicone polyester, and fluorocarbon polymer.

Lengths: Max 48′-0″.

Fasteners: Concealed with clips at side joints.

Dimensions: Width: 36″; Thickness: 2″, 2 1/2″, 3″, and 4″.

Usage: Contemporary look and vertical linear profile allow maximum use of shadows and flat surfaces to create a custom wall effect.

Limitations: Load/span tables for wind loads are available upon request.

Insulated “EWP” Features and Benefits:

1. Foam thickness of 2″, 2 1/2″, 3″, and 4″ that provides excellent insulating properties providing R-values from 17.2 to 30.6.
2. Complete Load/Span tables available allowing designer to make proper use of panel span capabilities.
3. Excellent test results for air leakage and water penetration through panel joint that confirms weather tightness in compliance with specifications.
4. Good Surface burning characteristics, which comply with model building codes for, foam plastics.
5. Concealed fasteners with clips, which provides a contemporary alternative to exposed fasteners.
6. Vertical indented ribs at 6″ centers which utilizes maximum use of shadows and flat surfaces for strong vertical accents.

Insulated ESP Wall Panel

Description: This architecturally pleasing panel is ideal for commercial applications. Low profile exterior structure and offset lap joint with concealed fasteners give “ESP” panels an attractive appearance for vertical applications. The panel is designed to module on 36″ width.

Gauge: 22, 24, and 26 (22 Ga. minimum order required).

Finish: Surfaces are stucco embossed, Rockwall™ Stone-Coated, silicone polyester, and fluorocarbon polymer.

Lengths: Max 48′-0″.

Fasteners: Concealed with clips at side joints.

Dimensions: Width: 36″; Thickness: 2″, 2 1/2″, 3″, and 4″.

Usage: “ESP” is an architecturally pleasing economical insulated wall system.

Limitations: Load/span tables for wind loads are available upon request.

Insulated “ESP” Features and Benefits:

1. Foam thickness of 2″, 2 1/2″, 3″, and 4″ for excellent insulating properties providing R-values from 17.2 to 30.6.
2. Complete Load/Span tables available, allows designer to make proper use of panel span capabilities.
3. Excellent test results for air leakage and water penetration through panel joint confirming weather tightness in compliance with specifications.
4. Good Surface burning characteristics comply with model building codes for foam plastics.
5. Concealed fasteners with clips provide a contemporary alternative to exposed fasteners.
6. Lightly striated design gives a flat appearance for most architectural and commercial applications.

Insulated IPP Liner Panel

Description: Attractive flat embossed profile produced in thickness of 2″ to 4″. “IPP” utilizes a concealed fastener joint that retains the high thermal properties built into all IPS insulated panels. Easy to maintain finishes that adds to the appearance of your building. It is designed to module on 36″ centers and has an USDA approved finish as a standard coating.

Gauge: 22, 24, and 26 both faces (22 Ga. minimum order required).

Finish: Both faces are stucco embossed, Rockwall™ Stone-Coated, Dura-20®, and Royal K- 70®.

Lengths: Max 48′-0″.

Fasteners: Concealed with clips. Concealed fastener installation hardware includes steel clips and screws.

Dimensions: 36″ Wide by 2″, 2 1/2″, 3″, and 4″ thick.

Usage: Interior partitions and ceilings – Can also be used as an exterior wall panel.

Limitations: Butyl side-joint sealant is field installed.

Insulated “IPP” Features and Benefits

1. Foam thickness of 2″, 2 1/2″, 3″, and 4″ for excellent insulating properties providing R-values from 17.2 to 30.6.
2. Complete Load/Span tables available, allows designer to make proper use of panel span capabilities.
3. Excellent test results for air leakage and water penetration through panel joint confirming weather tightness in compliance with specifications.
4. Good surface burning characteristics complying with model building codes for foam plastics.
5. Concealed fasteners with clips provide a contemporary alternative to exposed fasteners.
6. Use of symmetrical mesa embossed surfaces on both sides creates uniformity in finish and color throughout the building’s interior.
7. 48′-0″ maximum length which allows for continuous uninterrupted partition walls capable of withstanding most interior design loads (5 psf).
8. Instant interior partition that is energy efficient.
9. Offset lap joint that retains high thermal properties.

Insulated Rockwall™ Stone-Coated TecFoam Walls

Description: All of the insulated wall panels are available with the Rockwall™ Finish system. Rockwall™ gives you the advantage of steel wall panel construction with the durable beauty of stone aggregate. The Rockwall™ process bonds real stone aggregate to steel panels with a super adhesive system. A clear sealer gives the finished panel a crisp glazed appearance.

Gauges: 24 and 26.

Finishes: Sand Rock, and Granite Rock.

Lengths: Max 20′ Fasteners: Concealed with clips.

Dimensions: Width: 36″; Thickness: 2″- 4″.

Usage: The Rockwall™ finish is available on all panel profiles:

• “RWP” Roof/Wall Panel
• “EWP” Wall Panel
• “ESP” Wall Panel
• “IPP” Partition Panel

Limitations: For wall applications only.

IPS Rockwall™ Features and Benefits:

1. Foam thickness of 2″, 2 1/2″, 3″, and 4″ for excellent insulating properties providing R-values from 17.2 to 30.6.
2. Complete Load/Span tables available, allows designer to make proper use of panel span capabilities.
3. Excellent test results for air leakage and water penetration through panel joint confirming weather tightness in compliance with specifications.
4. Good Surface burning characteristics that comply with model building codes for foam plastics.
5. Concealed fasteners with clips provide a contemporary alternative to exposed fasteners.

Concrete Wall Systems

General Information

Tilt-up wall systems include load-bearing panels, non-load-bearing panels and wainscot panels.

Precast wall systems may be load-bearing or non-load-bearing and include flat panels, flat panels with spandrel beams, single-tee panels, double-tee panels, and wainscot panels.

Components used for each wall system include panels, joints, flashing and connections.

The buildings illustrated are typical of many being constructed in modern industrial parks. They demonstrate the use of precast flat wall panels with spandrel beams, tilt-up wall panels and precast tee panels.

Tilt-Up Wall Components

Tilt-up wall components can be defined as those built by the general contractor on the job-site using temporary casting facilities. They are usually wide, flat panels that span from grade to roof. The walls may be load-bearing or non-load-bearing and may act as shear walls to resist wind and seismic forces.

Common thicknesses of tilt-up concrete walls are 5 1/2″, 6″, 7 1/2″, and 8″. Typically panels are 15, 20, 25, or 30 feet wide. Panel heights are determined by building heights and frequently range up to 40 feet.

Concrete

Concrete for tilt-up walls is often designed to have a minimum ultimate strength of 3,000 psi at 28 days. It should be with a slump (the correct mixture of water and concrete to obtain a desired strength) of 3 to 4 inches.

Curing

Curing of job-built panels is limited to the use of curing agents and membranes.

The panel designer furnishes reinforcing steel specifications. Reinforcing is placed at mid-depth of panel. The amount of reinforcing that is required for temperature and shrinkage is usually adequate for normal panel loading. Extra reinforcing is installed around openings and at lifting inserts.

Inserts

Inserts are installed in panels, prior to pouring concrete, as necessary for the lifting operation and attachment to structure. Number and location of lifting inserts may be determined by the manufacturers of these items or by the contractor in association with a structural engineer.

Tilt-Up Construction Planning

Along with the decision to use tilt-up construction, the construction procedure should be established. Planning should involve everyone who will be associated with placing the walls. This includes those responsible for forming, placing concrete and reinforcing steel, finishing, erecting wall panels and erecting structural steel. The planning should consider the layout of the site and building and proper access should be provided. Particular attention should be given to providing operating room for concrete trucks and erecting cranes.

The entire construction procedure should be organized to proceed in an orderly sequence. During space-planning of the job site, it is often helpful to use scaled model cutouts of wall panels and equipment on a print of the building floor plan.

Tilt-Up walls are the most commonly used Concrete Wall System in the erection of metal building projects

Precast Wall Components

A subcontractor usually supplies precast wall components. They are manufactured off-site using permanent casting facilities and transported to the job-site. Several precast wall systems are flat panels, flat panels combined with spandrel beams, double-tee or single-tee panels and wainscot panels.

Some precast wall systems are designed to be load-bearing. With appropriate design, economy may be achieved by replacing the perimeter steel framing with the precast wall system.

Panel Sizes

Thickness and configuration determine precast products available in the contractor’s area. Typical flat panels are 4 to 6 inches thick and are 4, 5, 6, 8, or 10 feet in width. Typical flange thickness of tees range from 2 to 3 inches and flange widths are 4, 6, 8, or 10 feet in width. Length of all wall components is determined by building heights and precaster’s capability.

Concrete

Concrete for walls is usually a high strength, typically 4,000 to 6,000 psi. Vibration of casting beds increases concrete density.

Curing

Curing of precast panels can be accomplished by means of curing agents and membranes. However, steam curing is widely used and is most effective.

Reinforcement

The type of reinforcing steel used varies widely with the precaster. Pre-stressing is usually provided. Pre-stress is the process to introduce internal stresses into (as a structural beam) to counteract the stresses that will result from applied load (as in incorporating cables under tension in concrete).

Inserts

Inserts or other lifting devices are used to lift panels from lifting beds. Top edge inserts are often used to erect panels. Type of inserts and methods of lifting panels will vary among different precasters.

The details shown apply equally to precast panels as well as tilt-up panels. Use of precast wall panels often requires the utilization of a precast concrete subcontractor in the dealer’s area. The type of wall panels or sections used on a project depends on the types commonly manufactured and supplied by the local subcontractor. Double-tees, single-tees, or flat panels may not be available in all areas.

Erecting precast panels is done after the primary structure has been erected, which is just opposite of the tilt-up procedure.

Performance Characteristics of Tilt-Up and Precast Wall Systems

The performance characteristics of precast and tilt-up concrete wall systems are outstanding in many important areas.

Economic Considerations

The cost of concrete wall systems is low in comparison to masonry walls of similar or equal performance.

In many cases, tilt-up wall panels are the most cost effective of the concrete wall systems. Load-bearing tilt-up walls, which are designed to replace the perimeter steel columns and girders, provide the greatest cost savings.

In some areas of the United States, standard precast single-tees or double-tees are used for wall panels and are competitively priced.

Off-site precast flat panels are available in many areas of the country and use existing all-weather manufacturing facilities and local precaster experience and techniques. A high degree of quality control plus additional handling, loading and transportation requirements will usually result in higher in-place panel costs in comparison to job-built tilt-up panels.

Thermal Properties

Thermal properties of an uninsulated concrete wall system are adequate for buildings in some areas of the United States. The U-value for a 5 1/2″ thick wall is .064. If additional insulation or interior finish is required, rigid or batt insulation and gypsum board can provide a U-value of 0.16 and 0.05, respectively. Some panels are offered insulated.

Fire Resistance

Concrete wall systems offer fire resistance in a range from incombustible for precast tees to 4 hour separation for a 7 1/2″ thick flat panel. Low insurance premiums are assured for the owner.

Weather Resistance

The stubborn resistance of concrete to all kinds of weathering is well known. Properly constructed concrete panels will provide a lifetime of service even in the most severe climates.

Maintenance

Concrete wall systems with natural finishes and long life, all-weather sealants provide many years of maintenance free service.

Durability

Concrete wall systems are highly resistant to damage resulting from physical contact. They withstand the hard day-to day usage present in many warehouses and offer excellent security against theft and vandalism.

Sound Transmission

Concrete wall panels offer very good resistance to sound transmission. The resistance is in proportion to the wall thickness. Sound transmission class varies from 44 decibels for a 4″ thick wall to 54 decibels for a 7 1/2″ thick wall. These values exceed normal sound transmission requirements for most types of buildings.

Appearance Options

Concrete wall panels can be manufactured with appearance options related to specific project requirements. Where maximum economy is essential, the panels may be left with a smooth trowel or textured concrete finish.

If a special color is important, the wall panels can receive special paint or other applied finishes.

The use of exposed aggregates combined with natural and colored cement result in an unlimited number of finishes and appearance options.

Site Considerations

Building Codes

Most cities and towns of any size have instituted building codes that protect the public against injury to life and property. The types of construction, quality of materials, floor loads, allowable stresses and many other requirements relating to buildings are covered by these codes. A building department or a local building official generally administers codes, which examines and approves plans of proposed buildings. These officials will visit buildings during construction to make sure the buildings are being constructed according to the drawings the officials or the building department previously approved.

Codes vary widely in their requirements, from city to city, and county to county. It is important to become familiar with the various codes and regulations enforced in your specific market area.

Zones

Zoning should always be considered before the site selection is final.

Zoning ordinances regulate the size and use of buildings and the use of land. Four types of zones are generally recognized throughout a city:

• Residential
• Business
• Industrial
• Unrestricted

Business zones are areas incorporated within reasonable walking distances of residential areas for marketing and shopping. Industrial zones are areas generally near waterways, railroads and other transportation connections for manufacturing and commercial use. Outlying districts are zoned in the same manner to maintain them for present or future use. Each city or county has different zoning laws; therefore, it is essential to become familiar with the zoning laws in your specific market area.

Restrictions

Restrictions of a building site (as defined by codes and zones) must be considered before final plans of a building are completed, since they can affect the size and type of structure. Examples of typical restrictions may be:

• Buildings, as a rule, are not permitted to cover the entire lot. Uncovered spaces, such as courts, yards, etc., must be provided so that light and air are available to the occupants. This, of course, limits the square footage of possible floor space.
• Buildings also are restricted as to permissible height. Depending on the zone, taller buildings can be erected if portions of a building are set back a certain distance from the street.

   

• Off-street parking requirements are another frequent restriction.
• Availability of access to the building site can often be a safety restriction. The site might be located adjacent to a proposed interstate-highway system which, when built, would limit convenient access to the property.

Building restrictions vary considerably from one community to another. You will need to confirm your location is Zoned or approved appropriately.

Utilities

One of the first steps in the preparation of the site is consideration of the utility connections: water main, sewer, gas main, telephone, and electrical service lines. Water, sewer, and gas mains are generally located in easements parallel to property lines or adjacent streets. Occasionally, they are located beneath streets or on the other side of the street from the site that require boring or tunneling for access.

Permits are often required to connect to the main sewer line, water, and gas line. Inspections are required, and in some cases, “tap” fees are charged to connect.

Telephone and electrical lines provide more convenient connections since they are usually exposed above the ground. However, more and more telephone and electrical cables are being installed underground as well. Some zones even require all cables to be buried. Excavation should never be attempted without notifying the local utility coordinating group to verify existing utility locations.

Electrical subcontractors take care of all necessary wiring, but they do not make connections to the main line. This is performed by the local power and light company, which inspects the electrical work before making the final hook up. In most metropolitan areas, electrical work is also subject to inspection by the local building official or department.

The telephone company usually handles telephone connections. You will need to consider conduits within the floor or wall system.

The exact location of service lines should always be considered, since utility companies charge on the basis of “distance from the nearest source” (power line, water main, and so on) to the buildings. This, of course, affects the total cost of the project.

Soil

It is essential to know the soil’s characteristics before building construction begins. Is it hard or soft? Is the soil composed of rock, boulders, gravel, sand, or clay? What are the specific sizes of the composition? Open test pits, loading box and platform, and test borings are three types of soil tests used to determine soil composition. These tests establish the bearing value of the soil, which in turn determines the amount of weight the soil will support.

Firms specializing in this service, such as testing laboratories, normally perform testing.

It is not necessary that you know how to perform these tests, but you should become familiar with soil conditions in your area, and realize their importance to the total project. Many cities have established presumptive bearing capacities, which determine the maximum allowable loads that are placed on building sites. Soil tests are usually performed prior to foundation and paving design.

Site Preparation

Prior to the actual construction of the building, the first step is the preparation of the site. The land is surveyed to establish the exact boundary of the plot. In this survey, the building is also located and the desired grade level is staked out.

The exact elevation of the building, and the grade level, are established by the use of a surveyor’s instrument called a level. The elevations are usually set in relation to the top of the road or nearby buildings.

The land is then cleared of all obstructions, such as trees or boulders, which interfere with the construction project. If it is necessary to remove any existing buildings, a wrecking or demolition contractor performs this work prior to the rough grading or rough leveling of the land.

Grading

Rough grading is leveling the site to conform to the designed building and site elevations. This is usually called the subgrade. The rich top layer is removed and saved to be spread over the area later.

After the site has been leveled, the exact location of the building is marked. With the use of a transit and a measuring tape, the corners are located and staked out according to the plans.

Excavation and Fill

Excavation is digging out or hollowing the land to prepare it for the necessary footings and foundations of the structure. There are two general types of excavation performed on most construction projects:

1. General excavation – The bulk of the earth and rock is removed to prepare for the footings and foundation walls of the structure. An amount sufficient for back filling and final grading should be retained.
2. Minor excavation – Pick and shovel are used for trimming up trenches and footings prior to the actual pouring of concrete. In some cases small machines may be utilized to handle minor excavation work.

Fill or back fill might also be required in order to achieve the necessary grade level. Filling is simply adding earth and rocks where void places exist. In cases where the slope of the land is abrupt, it may be necessary to build walls to support this fill. When back filling the soil must be well compacted or packed solidly in order to insure against future settlement.

Drainage

Throughout the site preparation, excavations should be kept dry. Whenever ground water is present, it should be removed from the site, either by draining into prepared pits, or by pumping out the water. Some site locations might even require the placement of well points, where pipes are put into the ground to drain water from various locations. However, regulations should be checked before any drainage system is installed. This should be a part of any good site plan. A lot of foresight is necessary in considering drainage systems. It might prevent future problems and extra expense.

Concrete Work

Concrete presents a substantial part of most building projects, regardless of the size. Like almost any other material, it can give good service for years, or be a source of real problems, depending on the ingredients and care used in proportioning and placing it.

The two essential requirements of quality concrete are strength and durability. A proper balance between these two characteristics is necessary in order to get a good, strong foundation. In order to achieve this balance, four steps must be properly completed:

1. Selection of materials
2. Proportioning of materials
3. Placing and finishing of concrete
4. Curing of concrete

Selection of Materials

The materials used in making concrete are water, aggregates (sand and gravel), portland cement, and admixtures.

There are several types of portland cement available for different types of jobs. However, we are mainly concerned with the normal Type I portland cement, as it is the one most commonly used on construction of foundation and floors.

Together with the water, aggregate and cement, additional elements are sometimes required in the concrete to help make it react differently. These elements are called admixtures. One such admixture is used to accelerate the rate of early strength gain so that forms can be removed earlier. This reduces the time it usually takes before concrete can be finished, also known as the appropriate curing time.

In addition, there are other ingredients, which can be added, such as air infiltrating agents used for roadwork, where the concrete must be resistant to salts and freezing. Retarders are sometimes used during hot weather so that concrete may be moved from the mixer to its final position before the initial set takes place.

Proportioning of Materials

Quality concrete inherently possesses high compressive strength. If a tensile strength is desired, steel reinforcing bars must be embedded in the concrete to resist this tension. Tensile strength is the resistance to stretching or drawing out of the concrete. The most important, single consideration in obtaining the desired strength of concrete lies in the proper proportioning of the materials.

The compressive strength is usually defined in terms of so many pounds per square inch in 28 days, which is the norm for concrete to reach its designed strength. A typical batch of concrete with a specified strength of 3,000 psi at 28 days would have approximately these proportions:

• Cement 94 pounds
• Sand 185 pounds
• Coarse Aggregate 360 pounds
• Water 5 1/2 gallons

Practically all concrete is machine mixed in a rotating drum cylinder, either in a “Ready-Mix” truck, or a similar mixer on the job site.

Placing and Finishing of Concrete

No element in the entire cycle of quality concrete production requires more careful consideration than the final operation of placing and finishing. Placing and finishing are both dependent on workmanship, so here, care and skill are especially important.

Forms hold the concrete in place until it has hardened. They are usually constructed of wood or metal, and must be rigid enough to support the weight of the concrete without deformation or appreciable deflection, and should be tight enough to prevent the seepage of water. The concrete is deposited uniformly in order to prevent segregation of the aggregates and to make certain the reinforcing steel is completely covered without voids. Concrete is conveyed from the mixer to the forms by means of barrows, by inclined chutes, or is pumped. Normally, the concrete is vibrated by an electric or pneumatic vibrator or spaced to assure well, uniform coverage, and to prevent honeycombing from occurring. In placing concrete in deep layers, a gradual increase in water content in the top layers usually results from the increased pressure on the lower portion. This excess water is called Latinate, and should be removed before further finishing, because it produces lower strength concrete in the upper levels if permitted to remain.

When pouring concrete floor slabs, the surface is screeded prior to finishing. Screeding is the process of striking off the excess concrete to bring the top surface to proper contour and elevation. A template is moved back and forth on the forms, with a sawing motion, to force concrete into the low areas.

After the foundation or floor is roughly leveled, the surface is ready to be finished. Wood or metal floats are used initially to compact the concrete, forcing the larger aggregates below the surface. Steel trowels are then used to obtain a smooth surface and to compact it for a hard finish. If there are areas exposed to outdoor usage, such as walks or driveways, a broom finish is recommended. The broom finish is simply taking a broom and wiping it across the concrete. This roughens the surface for a friction grip, so that the concrete is not slippery when wet.

Curing of Concrete

Concrete hardens because of the chemical reaction between portland cement and water. This process continues as long as temperatures are favorable and moisture is present.

The quality of concrete, or the strength of the concrete, is dependent on the temperature and moisture conditions in which it cures. In addition, its resistance to abrasive action is also increased by these same elements in curing.

While it is important that the amount of water used in mixing be controlled so that the consistency is as nearly normal as practical. It is just as important that concrete is not allowed to dry out too soon or it will reach strength less than 50% of its potential.

Temperature has a considerable effect on the rate of hardening. In the past, you could not pour concrete during the winter season because the water in the mixture would freeze and prevent the proper setting. But now, construction operations may continue throughout the year. The most favorable conditions are between 50 and 90 degrees Fahrenheit. However, good curing temperatures may range below 50 F and even below 32 F, if the concrete is properly protected from cold air during the first 72 hours after being placed.

With suitable precautions, concrete can be placed during cold weather and have the same qualities as concrete cured during the summer months.

Foundations

The actual construction of a building must obviously begin with the laying of the foundation, a necessary base for any structure. Because all ground, regardless of the bearing value of the soil, has a tendency to move, the building must be built on a good, strong foundation that is designed for the anticipated loads.

The old saying, “a building is only as strong as its foundation” is still just as true today as it was years ago when someone coined that phrase. While materials and methods are much improved, faulty foundations remain a paramount source of trouble for some building construction. Leaky basements, cracking walls, and settling floors are typical trouble spots. And once they exist, they can present some of the most difficult problems to solve.

Foundations are actually broken down into two classifications:

1. Walls
2. Footings

A foundation wall means any wall with a major portion located below the grade level. The wall serves as a base support for other walls and columns. A footing is a structural unit used to distribute building loads to the bearing materials.

Foundations used for rigid frame buildings are considerably different from those normally required for conventional structures with load-bearing walls. The choice of foundation is determined in part by the basic loads, which need to be resisted.

Foundations for metal buildings are usually not subject to extremely heavy vertical loads; however; they are required to withstand horizontal loads of considerable magnitude. Horizontal loads tend to push out the foundation, and if not adequately provided for, they could cause failure not only of the foundation, but also of the main structural framing members. These loads are resisted by two methods:

1. Use of steel tie-bars. The reinforcing bars are connected to anchor bolts, providing a continuous tie between the column bases.

   A spread tie, or hairpin, which transfers the load from the column anchor bolts to the welded wire fabric (used in floor slab) is used where the horizontal loads are not large. Basically, it utilizes the same design principle as the tie-bars.

2. Increasing size of footing. Increasing the size of the footing helps counteract the force exerted by horizontal loads, thus preventing the movement of the foundation. This method is usually the most expensive.

The type of foundation depends upon the geographical location of the building, topography of land, frame loads imposed on foundation, local building code restrictions and architectural considerations. Generally, there are three types of foundations used with our building systems:

1. Floating Slabs. Floating slabs consist of a concrete slab, monolithically poured with a continuous grade beam. The grade beam is either spread directly under the column or reinforced along the bottom to carry the vertical column loads.
2. Pier, Footing, and Grade Beam consist of a square or rectangular footing and a grade beam wall. A drilled pier may be utilized in lieu of the square or rectangular footing. Piers and footings carry most of the vertical loads.

Floors

A floating slab, or slab on grade, is the general type of floor system often used with metal buildings. It is either poured monolithically with the foundation wall, or poured after the foundation wall is in place. In both cases, the concrete slab encases steel serving as reinforcement. This steel reinforcing reduces the cracking of the floor and helps control expansion and contraction.

Where there are additional concentrated-load requirements standard reinforcing bars are often necessary.

Many floor slabs are constructed with a vapor barrier to prevent passage of moisture from the soil through the concrete. The most common barrier used is a polyethylene sheet material. This is placed on top of a gravel or sand base, with the concrete being poured directly over the material.

The type of floor system required and the thickness of floor depend on what loads are anticipated. The average of these floor loads is uniformly distributed. Any concentrated load, such as machinery or storage racks, and any moving load, such as forklift trucks, must be considered in order to establish the floor design.

Many local building codes establish minimum floor-design loads for various end uses.

Another consideration in the floor design is the type of joints used. A construction joint is simply a joint required where construction begins and ends, from one day’s pour to the next.

An expansion or control joint is used where the floor slab abuts a wall or where a steel column or pier passes through the floor. It is used to control the contraction that will occur, by merely forcing the crack to occur at a predetermined point. Actually, an expansion joint in a concrete foundation might better be classified as a contraction joint because during the curing process, the concrete shrinks in volume approximately the same amount that would normally result from a 100 degree drop in temperature.

If the finished concrete floor is to be sealed, hardened, or waterproofed. Chemicals or additives are often applied during the final finishing or soon after curing to achieve the results desired.

Pre-Assembly

In the pre-assembly phase, there are several things that are necessary to consider: access to the site, assuring sufficient workspace requirements at the site, availability of required utilities, a comprehensive safety awareness program, and a familiarity with the erection drawings.

The vehicle transporting your building parts must gain access to the building site from the adjacent highway or road. Such access should be studied and prepared in advance of arrival. All obstructions, overhead and otherwise, must be removed and the access route graveled or planked if the soil will not sustain the heavy wheel loads.

Inspect to insure that there is enough room to physically perform the tasks required to erect the building. Application of sheeting and trim can be expensive when there is not sufficient working space because of the proximity of adjacent buildings or other obstructions.

The availability of any required utilities should also be considered in advance. Take careful note of any overhead electric lines or other utilities to avoid hazards and damage (notify your utility company when necessary).

Develop a comprehensive safety awareness program in advance to familiarize the work force with the unique conditions of the site, and the building materials, along with the appropriate “Safe Work” practices that will be utilized.

Finally, before assembly of the building can commence, you and your crew must familiarize yourselves with the erection drawings furnished with every building.

Each plan is specially prepared for each individual building and should be strictly adhered to.

Assembly of the Building

The next stage in the construction process of a building is the assembly of the structural and covering systems. We will merely discuss the general steps in this process. One of the best ways to become familiar with this phase is to visit an actual construction job within your local area.

Unloading and Layout of Material

Pre-planning of the unloading operations is an important part of the assembly procedure. This involves careful, safe and orderly storage of all materials. Detailed planning is required at the job site where storage space is restricted. Here, a planned separation of materials in the order of assembly process is necessary to minimize the costly double handling of materials. While set procedures are not possible in all cases, special attention should be given to the following items:

1. Location of carrier vehicle during unloading. Unload material near their usage points to minimize lifting, travel, and rehandling during building assembly.
2. Prepare necessary ramp for truck. The edges of the concrete slab should be protected to minimize the danger of chipping or cracking from truck traffic if the materials are to be laid out on the slab. One important safety consideration is the fact that materials stored on the slab may subject the workers to possible injury from falling objects.
3. Schedule lifting equipment. The manufacturer neither supplies lifting equipment nor labor to unload the truck. The type and size of lifting equipment is determined by the size of the building and the site conditions. The weight and size of the largest piece of structural steel is to be lifted as high as it has to be lifted and the distance of the lift from the position of the crane all impact the selection of the crane or other lifting equipment. Length of boom, capacity and maneuverability of lifting equipment will determine its location for both unloading and assembly.

   Use the same lifting equipment to unload and erect structural parts of the building if possible. Combining the unloading process with the building erection usually minimizes lifting equipment costs. As soon as the truck is unloaded, the lifting equipment should start erecting the columns and raising the assembled rafters into position.

4. CONSIDERATION OF OVERHEAD ELECTRIC WIRES. OVERHEAD POWER LINES ARE A CONTINUING SOURCE OF DANGER. EXTREME CARE MUST BE USED IN LOCATING AND USING LIFTING EQUIPMENT TO AVOID CONTACT WITH POWER LINES.
5. Schedule crew. Depending on the crew size, valuable time can generally be gained if the supervisor plans and watches ahead instead of getting tied up with a particular unloading chore.
    
6. Check Shipment. When shipments are received in the field, two inspections are necessary:

    

   1. When items, boxes, crates, bundles or other large components are received and unloaded for the carrier, they should be checked off from the packing list. If during the inspection, damages, or shortages of items are found a report should be filed with the carrier immediately at the site. When damages are evident from the exterior of containers, they should be opened and inspected thoroughly at the time of receiving shipments.
   2. When bundles, crates, cartons, boxes, etc. are opened following delivery, another check must be performed to determine the quantity received and their condition. If during this inspection damages or shortages of items are found upon opening the crates or cartons, a written claim should be filed no later than fourteen days after delivery. If a shortage is discovered within a container, then a written notice should be mailed or faxed to SBS. Unless these two important inspections are made and any reports or claims are filed immediately, settlements become very difficult and usually all parties suffer the loss.

Location of Building Parts

Columns and rafters are usually unloaded near their respective installed positions on wood blocking on the slab in position for easy assembly.

Endwalls are usually laid out at each end of slab with the columns near respective anchor bolts.

Hardware packages should be located centrally, usually along one sidewall near the center of the building. This will minimize walking distances to other parts of the slab area.

Purlins and girts, depending on the number of bundles, are usually stored near the sidewalls clear of the other packages or parts.

Sheet packages are usually located along one or both sidewalls off the ground and sloping to one end to encourage drainage in case of rain.

Accessories are usually unloaded on a corner of the slab or off the slab near one end of the building to keep them as much out of the way as possible from the active area during steel erection. All materials should be protected from the elements and walking on materials should be avoided at all times.

Storing Materials

Structural Framing Members

A great amount of time and trouble can be saved if the building parts are unloaded at the building site according to a prearranged staging plan. Proper location and handling of components will eliminate unnecessary handling.

Blocking under the columns and rafters protect the splice plates and the slab from damage during the unloading process. It also facilitates the placing of slings or cables around the members for later lifting and allows members to be bolted together into subassemblies while on the ground.

If water is allowed to remain for extended periods in bundles of primed parts such as girts, purlins, etc., the pigment will fade and the paint will gradually soften reducing its bond to the steel. Therefore, upon receipt of a job, all bundles of primed parts should be stored at an angle to allow any trapped water to drain away and permit air circulation for drying. Puddles of water should not be allowed to collect and remain on columns or rafters for the same reason.

Wall and Roof Panels

The Manufacturer’s wall and roof panels including color coated Galvalume® and galvanized, provide excellent service under widely varied conditions. All unloading and erection personnel should fully understand that these panels are quality merchandise, which merits cautious care in handling and storing.

Under no circumstances should panels be handled roughly. Packages of sheets should be lifted off the truck with extreme care taken to insure that no damage occurs to ends of the sheets or to side ribs. Please note the designated “pick points” to prevent crimping damage during lifting of bundles. The packages should be stored off the ground sufficiently high to allow air circulation underneath the packages. One end of the package should always be elevated to encourage drainage in case of rain.

All stacked metal panels are subject, to some degree, to localized discoloration or stain when water is trapped between their closely nested surfaces. The Manufacturer exercises extreme caution during fabricating and shipping operations to insure that all panel stock is kept dry. However, due to climatic conditions, water formed by condensation of humid air can become trapped between stacked sheets. Water can also be trapped between the stacked sheets when exposed to rain. This discoloration caused by trapped moisture is often called wet storage stain.

Use wood blocking to elevate and slope the panels in a manner that will allow moisture to drain. Wood blocking placed between bundles will provide additional air circulation. Cover the stacked bundles with a tarp or plastic cover leaving enough opening at the bottom for air to circulate.

Metal Building Assembly

Responsible personnel, experienced in rigging and handling light steel members in a safe manner should complete the layout, subassembly, and assembly of the metal building. Improper handling can easily result in injury, delays and unexpected added costs. This is particularly true when raising assembled rafters for wide buildings.

The assembly crews should always use proven and safe erection methods. Knowledge of and adherence to OSHA and other local codes or laws governing jobsite safety is critical, and is the responsibility of the erector.

Tips to Keep Assembly Costs Down

Minimum costs should be obtained when the following conditions are met during the assembly of a building:

1. When safety practices are discussed and initiated in advance of any work procedure.
2. When the overall work of assembling the building is divided into individual jobs, and when each job is assigned to teams of workers consisting of two to seven workers each, with three to five worker teams preferred.

    

3. When individual workers are properly trained and instructed in advance as to what they are to do and the safe way to do it. This eliminates time wasted while waiting to be told what to do next.
4. When building parts are properly laid out according to advanced planning so as to avoid lost time in repetitive handling or in searching for specific items.
5. When as many parts as can be safely raised in a single lift are bolted together in subassemblies on the ground where assembly work is faster and safer, thereby, requiring fewer lifts and fewer connections to be made in the air.
    
6. When assembly of the steel framework starts at one end and continues bay by bay to the other end of the building.
7. When the first bay is completed, the individual frames are erected and tied together by skeleton or lead purlins and the fill-in purlins are installed after the costly lifting equipment has been released.
8. When the proper tools and equipment are available in sufficient quantity and in good/safe working condition.